当苏格兰议会在伦敦与英国议会争吵时,尽管它在苏格兰赢得了人们的好评,若我们考虑到选举中选民的投票率,那么,因权力下放而产生的立法机构并没有受到一边倒的喝彩。结果,近期所有的变化没有赢得来自公众的广泛支持,其, 中的一些甚至遭到广泛的反对。最近30年左右发生的变化和改革没有形成对政客更多的尊崇,没有出现选举中的高投票率,没有促成人民更深入地卷入政治党派或者说民众总体上更强烈的政治参与热情。老的英国宪法不再枝繁叶茂,全新的宪法还未创建。对正在发生的事情,理性的公共舆论四分五裂,却没有寻求一个替代的宪政模式的巨大热情。因此,英国宪法是正处于一个改进的过程,还是事实上业已受到颠覆,这一点远非清楚。
【作者简介】
〔英〕哈利·T·狄金森( Harry T. Dickinson),爱丁堡大学,历史、古典文学与考古学院,Edinburgh EH8 9YL UK;胡琦,南京大学历史系2010 级博士研究生;任东来,南京大学中美文化研究中心。
【注释】Michael Moran, Politics and Governance in the UK, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005, pp. 71, 85;Dawn Oliver, Constitutional Reform in the United Kingdom, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003, pp. 6, 9.
安妮女王拒绝接受1708年《苏格兰民兵法》,她是最后一位否决议会两院通过的法案的英国君主(参见:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Militia_Bill_1708)。此后,再也没有君主否决议会两院多数票支持的法案。1708年之后,正好过了100年,国王解散了一届政府,它试图通过一项国王反对的法案。或者说,国王威胁贵族院让法案流产。例如,乔治三世胁迫贵族们反对《1783年福克斯印度法》和《1807年格兰维尔天主教解救法》,接着又解除了支持这些措施的那些内阁大臣的职务。从19世纪中期到现在,没有哪位国王再试图阻挠那些明确拥有议会两院多数支持的法案。的确,在1832年与1911年,君主胁迫贵族院接受《1832大改革法》和《1911年议会改革法》,贵族反对拥有下议院多数支持的受民众欢迎的这些宪法改革。
自18世纪早期,英国即有公认的总理大臣或者首相。大约一个世纪之后,君主挑选首相,首相受命后努力地在议会两院建立对其政策的多数支持。然而,从1830年起,君主委任首相是因为他(或者她,比如撒切尔夫人是英国历史上唯一的女首相)已经在议会树立了多数的支持并且能够让立法机关通过政府事务。
行政部门需要议会的支持来掌控政府的财政,这一点至关重要,因此,几乎每一位首相(一个非正式的头衔)都具有财政部第一大臣的头衔。因为有关税收的投票是下院的职能,所有的政府在立法院必须要有一位首席大臣。在18世纪和19世纪,许多首相都是上院在任的贵族,其原因在于,就财富和社会地位而言,这些贵族属于最重要的政客之列。尽管这些首相都具有财政部第一大臣的头衔,但是为了使政府的税收与财政政策能够在下议院通过,他们需要一位财政专家在下院充当财政大臣。最后一位担任首相的上院议员是索尔兹伯里侯爵,他于1885-1886年、1886-1892年和1895-1902年担任首相。在这些年中的大多数时候,他出任外交大臣而非财政部第一大臣。1902年以后,下院控制财政与税收政策变得如此重要以至于再也没有上院议员出任首相了。1963年,霍姆伯爵出任首相时,他不得不放弃伯爵爵位并且以阿列克·道格拉斯-霍姆的身份入选下院。
Dawn Oliver, Constitutional Reform in the United Kingdom, p. 11.
Nevil Johnson, Reshaping the British Constitution: Essays in Political Interpretation, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004, p. 1.
Nevil Johnson, Reshaping the British Constitution: Essays in Political Interpretation, pp. 9-11.
Michael Moran, Politics and Governance in the UK, pp. 77-78; Dawn Oliver, Constitutional Reform in the United Kingdom, p.9; Gillian Peele, Governing the UK, 3rd edition, Oxford: Blackwell, 1995, p. 26.
H. T. Dickinson, “The Eighteenth-Century Debate on the Sovereignty of Parliamen,” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th series,26,1976:189-210.有关议会主权的通史性讨论见Jeffrey Goldsworthy,The Sovereignty of Parliament:History and Philosophy,Oxford:Clarendon Press,1999.
William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England, 4 vols., Oxford, 1765-1769;18th edition, London, 1829, I, pp. 46, 48-52, 146, 159-160;Albert Venn Dicey, Lectures introductory to the Study of the Law of the Constitution, London, 1885.像布莱克斯通的大作一样,这本影响广泛的著作后来有很多版本。
《1800年联合法》被认为是大不列颠和爱尔兰宪法联系的永久解决方案,但是,1922年议会承认三分之二的爱尔兰岛成为一个独立的共和国。
Gillian Peele, Governing the UK, pp. 25, 33, 35; A. W. Bradley, “The Sovereignty of Parliament-In Perpetuity?” in The Changing Constitution(ed.), Jeffrey Jowell and Dawn Oliver, 3rd edition, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 84.
A. W. Bradley, “The Sovereignty of Parliament-In Perpetuity?” in The Changing Constitution,(ed.)Jeffrey Jowell and Dawn Oliver, pp. 85-89.
转引自A. W. Bradley, “The Sovereignty of Parliament-In Perpetuity?” in The Changing Constitution(ed.), Jeffrey Jowell and Dawn Oliver, p. 80.
Nevil Johnson, Reshaping the British Constitution, p. 31.
Nevil Johnson, Reshaping the British Constitution, pp. 162-165;Dawn Oliver, Constitutional Reform in the United Kingdom, pp. 7, 12;Michael Moran, Politics and Governance in the UK, p. 83. 在The Reform of Parliament一书中,一位著名的政治学教授Bernard Crick,提出了类似宣言一样的某些建议。
转引自Norman Tebbit, “Britain and Europe: The Issue of Sovereignty,” in Keith Sutherland(ed.), The Rape of the Constitution? Thorverton, Exeter: Imprint Academic, 2000, p. 291.
Nevil Johnson, Reshaping the British Constitution, pp. 129-130.
Nevil Johnson, Reshaping the British Constitution, pp. 265-266; Michael Moran, Politics and Governance in the UK, pp. 81, 99.
Gillian Peele, Governing the UK, p. 35.
Gillian Peele, Governing the UK, pp. 36-38; Dawn Oliver, Constitutional Reform in the United Kingdom, p. 17; Nevil Johnson, Reshaping the British Constitution, pp. 129-130; A. W. Bradley''s essay, in Jowell and Oliver(ed.), The Changing Constitution, pp. 90-98.
Nevil Johnson, Reshaping the British Constitution, p. 130; Gillian Peele, Governing the UK, p. 38; Dawn Oliver, Constitutional Reform in the United Kingdom, p. 82.
Nevil Johnson, Reshaping the British Constitution, pp. 267-268; Dawn Oliver, Constitutional Reform in the United Kingdom, pp. 83-84.
Michael Moran, Politics and Governance in the UK, p. 73; Dawn Oliver, Constitutional Reform in the United Kingdom, pp. 81,201.
这三个法律详见:
http://opsi.gov.uk/acts/act1998/19980046.html;
http://www.opsi.gov uk/acts/acts1998/19980047.html;
http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts1998/19980047.html.
Vernon Bogdanor,Devolution in the United Kingdom,Oxford:Oxford University Press,1999,pp. 203-204.有关苏格兰法细节的讨论请参见:Barry K. Winetrobe,“Enacting Scotland''s ''Written Constitution‘:The Scotland Act 1998,”in Philip Norton(ed.),A Century of Constitutional Reform,Chichester:Wiley-Blackwell for The Parliamentary Yearbook Trust,2011,pp. 85-100.
目前(2011年6月),英国议会正在讨论一项苏格兰法案,它将给苏格兰议会更多的财政权,诸如有权掌控更多来自苏格兰的所得税收入的份额,有权掌握印花税。2011年5月,苏格兰国家党在选举中一举获胜后,由其组阁的苏格兰政府正在进一步谋求更大的财政权力,即掌握北海油田的岁入和在资本市场上募集政府借款的权力。
Nevil Johnson, Reshaping the British Constitution, pp. 176-182.
Nevil Johnson, Reshaping the British Constitution, pp. 188-193;Vernon Bogdanor, Devolution in the United Kingdom, pp. 209-210.
Nevil Johnson, Reshaping the British Constitution, pp. 182-188.
Nevil Johnson, Reshaping the British Constitution, p. 187.
苏格兰是一个例外。它拥有的是以罗马法(像西欧的许多国家)而不是以普通法原则为基础的非常不同的法律体系。
Nevil Johnson, Reshaping the British Constitution, pp. 239-240,243-244, 316.
Jowell and Oliver(ed.), The Changing Constitution, pp. 98-101; David Feldman, “Extending the Role of the Courts: The Human Rights Act 1998,” in Philip Norton(ed.), A Century of Constitutional Reform, pp. 65-84.
Nevil Johnson, Reshaping the British Constitution, pp. 29, 130-131,241-251,264-265.
Nevil Johnson, Reshaping the British Constitution, pp. 129-130.
Nevil Johnson, Reshaping the British Constitution, pp. 129-130.
Nevil Johnson, Reshaping the British Constitution, pp. 206-207; Dawn Oliver, Constitutional Reform in the United Kingdom, p. 293.
目前(2011年6月),下院议员肯尼斯.克拉克(Kenneth Clarke)掌管着这个内阁部门。上院的辩论原来由大法官来主持,但是,因为现在上院已经没有了大法官,上院的贵族不得不选举一个议长(Lord Speaker)来主持他们的辩论,并代表上院出席各种仪式。
Nevil Johnson,Reshaping the British Constitution,pp.255-258,这个最高法院的组成和细节可参见:
http://www.supremecourt.gov.uk/index.html.
Nevil Johnson, Reshaping the British Constitution, pp. 224-228.
Nevil Johnson, Reshaping the British Constitution, pp. 131-132.
Michael Moran, Politics and Governance in the UK, p. 198.
Nevil Johnson, Reshaping the British Constitution, pp. 124-125;Dawn Oliver, Constitutional Reform in the United Kingdom, p 188;Gillan Peele,Governing the UK,p.34.有关1911年议会法的最近研究参见:Chris Ballinger,“Hedging and Ditching:The Parliament Act 1911,” in Philip Norton(ed.), A Century of Constitutional Reform, pp. 19-32;
http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Geo5/1-2/13/contents;
http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukgpa/Geo6/12-13-14/103/contents.
Dawn Oliver, Constitutional Reform in the United Kingdom, pp. 8, 191.
Vernon Bogdanor, “Britain and the European Community,” in Jowell and Oliver(ed.), The Changing Constitution, pp. 9-15.
Nevil Johnson, Reshaping the British Constitution, pp. 265-266.
The Life Peerage Act, 1958,
http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Eliz2/6-7/21/contents.
Michael Moran, Politics and Governance in the UK, p. 212.
《1999年上院法》详见:
http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts1999/1990034.html;参见:Nevil Johnson,Reshaping the British Constitution, pp. 127-129,210-216;Dawn Oliver, Constitutional Reform in the United Kingdom, pp. 193-200.
“Proposed Reform of the House of Lords”, cm 6488,
http://www.archive2.official-documents.co.uk/document/cm64/6488/6488.pdf.
Michael Moran, Politics and Governance in the UK, pp. 209-13.
此次全民公投的详情见:
Http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_Alternative_Vote_referendum,2011.
Keith Sutherland(ed.), The Rape of the Constitution?p. 62.
复杂的D''Hondt制计票方法可以参见:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D''Hondt_method.
Vernon Bogdanor, Devolution in the United Kingdom, pp. 219-224.
Vernon Bogdanor, Devolution in the United Kingdom, pp. 221,225-226.
Vernon Bogdanor, Devolution in the United Kingdom, pp. 224-225.
Vernon Bogdanor, Devolution in the United Kingdom. p. 215;Michael Moran, Politics and Governance in the UK, pp. 223,226.
Michael Moran, Politics and Governance in the UK, p. 241;Nevil Johnson, Reshaping the British Constitution, pp. 131, 187.
Vernon Bogdanor, Devolution in the United Kingdom, pp. 211, 232, 264.
Vernon Bogdanor, Devolution in the United Kingdom, pp. 227-235;Dawn Oliver, Constitutional Reform in the United Kingdom, p. 288;Nevil Johnson, Reshaping the British Constitution, p. 196.
Dawn Oliver, Constitutional Reform in the United Kingdom, pp. 288-289.
2006年6月25日,苏格兰《观察》的星期天版宣称,英格兰人对以下现象日益不满:约翰?里德(John Reid)是苏格兰籍下院议员,作为英国政府的内政部长,他能够决定英格兰兰开郡的警察事务,但却不能决定苏格兰拉纳克郡的警察事务。道格拉斯?亚历山大,那时的交通部长,未来能够决定英格兰的公路收费,却不能对自己苏格兰选区作同样的事情。
Dawn Oliver,Constitutional Reform in the United Kingdom,p.290;Vernon Bogdanor,Devolution in the United Kingdom,pp. 271-273.
2004年11月,英格兰东北部举行了一次全民投票,事关在这一地区设立地区性国民议会(与威尔士的立法会议非常相似)的提案。只有48%的合格选民不厌其烦地投了票,其中78%的选票拒绝了这项提案(参见:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/3984387.stm)。
Vernon Bogdanor, Devolution in the United Kingdom, p. 229.
Dawn Oliver, Constitutional Reform in the United Kingdom, p. 289.
Nevil Johnson, Reshaping the British Constitution, p. 3.
Nevil Johnson, Reshaping the British Constitution, p. 2.