总之，笔者认为，通过人权非政府组织、政府及政府间国际组织的共同参与，多元立法，才能最大限度地促进人权非政府组织在人权领域发挥其独特作用，并在多元结构的全球社会更好地实现对国际人权的保护。
【作者简介】
黄赟琴，单位为武汉大学。
【参考文献】{1}当时，随着禁止奴隶贸易运动的兴起，在欧美等国成立了许多与之有关的非政府组织，如1775年在美国成立的宾夕法尼亚促进废除奴隶制协会（Pennysylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery）、 1787年在英国成立的实现废除奴隶贸易协会（Society for Effecting the Abolition of Slave Trade）以及1788年在法国成立的黑人之友协会（Socit e des Amis des Noirs）等。See Steve Charnovitz, Two Centuries of Participation: NGOS and International Governace, in Michigan Journal of International Law, Vol.18, 1996-1997, p. 191.
{2}参见[美]托马斯·伯根索尔等：《国际人权法精要》，黎作恒译，法律出版社2010年版，第334页。
{3}参见王杰主编：《全球治理中的国际非政府组织》，北京大学出版社2004年版，第371页。
{4}事实上，尽管国际人权运动的出现相对较晚，但随着人权理念迅速“辐射”和渗透到国际关系的各个领域，人权非政府组织的活动范围早已超出传统的国际人权机制，在国际环境保护（环境与人权）、经济和社会发展（发展与人权）、国际贸易秩序（贸易与人权）乃至气候变化（气候变化与人权）等问题上都发挥着强大的影响力。限于篇幅，本文对人权非政府组织在这些关联领域的活动和影响不作过多讨论。
{5}See Peter Willetts, What is a Non-Governmental Organization?, available at http://www.staff.city.ac.uk/p.willetts/CS-NTWKS/NGO-ART.HTM, visited on March 14,2011.
{6}See H. H-K Rechenberg. Non-Governmental Organizations, in R. Bernhardt, ed., Encyclopedia of Public International Law. Vol .111,Elevier Science Publishers B.V., 1995, p612.
{7}如大赦国际（Amnesty International）、国际法学家委员会（International Commission of Jurists）、国际人权联合会（InternationalFederation for Human Rights）、国际人权联盟（International League for Human Rights）等。
{8}大多数的宗教性组织即属此类，如世界基督教教会联合会（World Council of Churches） 、世界犹太人大会（World JewishCongress）、世界穆斯林大会（World Muslim Congress）等。
{9}如人权观察虽然是依据美国的国内法成立的非政府组织，但是其活动范围却是国际性的。类似的人权非政府组织还有国际人权法小组（International Human Rights Law Group）、律师促进国际人权委员会（Lawyers Committee for International HumanRights）等。而像大赦国际这样纯粹的只具国际性的人权非政府组织是较为罕见的。该组织于1961年在伦敦成立，但是英国的法律没有赋予它任何正式的法律地位。
{10}前引{3}，王杰书，第369页。
{11}See Jackie Smith, Ron Pagnucco and George A. Lopez, Globalizing Human Rights: The Work of Transnational Rights NGOs in the1990s, in Human Rights Quarterly, Vol.20. 1998, p.387.
{12}参见张爱宁：《国际人权公约特点评述》，《比较法研究》2006年第6期
{13}参见李浩培：《国际法的概念和渊源》，贵州人民出版社1994年版，第35-36页。
{14}参见黄志雄：《国际法视角下的非政府组织：趋势、影响与对策》，载曾令良、余敏友主编：《全球化时代的国际法—基础、结构与挑战》，武汉大学出版社2005年版，第184页。
{15}两个美国的非政府组织，美国基督教联合委员会及美国犹太委员会，对人权原则纳入到《联合国宪章》以及之后的《世界人权宣言》作出了重大努力。See William Korey, NGOs and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights: A “Curious Grapevine”, St.Martins Press, 1998, p.1,33.45-46; L. Gordenker and T.G. Weiss. Pluralizing Global Governance: Analytical Approaches and Di-mensions, in T. G. Weiss and L. Gordenker, ed., NGOs, The UN，and Global Goverance,Lynne Rienner Pub., 1996, pp.39-40.
{16}See Nigel S. Rodley, Human Rights NGOs: Rights and Obligations, Present Status and Perspectives, in R. Hut, ed., Legitimacy ofthe United Nations: Towards an Enhanced Legal Status of Non-State Actors. SIM Special No. 19, Utrecht, 1997, p.43.
{17}See Menno T. Kamminga, The Evolving Status of NGOs in International Law: A Threat to the Inter-State System?, in Philip Alston,ed., Non-State Actors and Human Rights, Oxford University Press, 2005. p.101.
{18}See L. Gordenker and T.G. Weiss, Pluralizing Global Governance: Analytical Approaches and Dimensions, in T. G. Weiss and L.Gordenker, ed., NGOs, The UN，and Global Goverance, Lynne Rienner Pub., 1996. p.56
{19}See Louis Henkin, Human Rights: Ideology and Aspiration, Reality and Prospect, in Samantha Power and Graham Allison, edRealizing Human Rights: Moving from Inspiration to Impact, Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, p.24.
{20}See P. R. Baehr, Mobilization of the Conscience of Mankind: Conditions of Effectiveness of Human Rights NGOs, available at bttp://www.globalpolicy. org/ngos/role/globdem/globgov/2000/1117.htm, visited on April 21,2011.
{21}参见前引{2}，托马斯·伯根索尔等书，第97页；[奥]曼弗雷德·诺瓦克：《国际人权制度导论》，柳华文译，北京大学出版社2010年版，第107页。
{22}See Michael H. Posner and Candy Whittome, The Status of Human Rights NGOs, in Columbia Human Rights Law Review, Vol.25,1993-1194, p274.
{23}See D. Shelton, The Participation of Nongovernmental Organizations in International Judical Proceedings, in American Journal ofInternational Law, Vol.88, 1994, pp. 611, 630-640.
{24}参见前引{2}托马斯·伯根索尔等书，第343页。
{25}See D. Shelton, The Participation of Nongovernmental Organizations in International Judical Proceedings, in American Journal of In-ternational Law, Vol.88， 1994, pp. 623-625.
{26}参见前引{2}托马斯·伯根索尔等书，第344-345页。
{27}See N. McDermot, The Role of NGOs in the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, in The Role of Non-Governmental Organi-zations in the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights: Symposium Organized on the Occasion of the Award of the PraemiumErasmianum to the ICJ, Stichting NJCM-Boekerij, 1989, pp.45-52.
{28}See T. G. Weiss and L. Gordenker, ed., NGOs, The UN, and Global Goverance, Lynne Rienner Pub., 1996, p.56.
{29}See Rachel Brett, The Role of NGOs-An Overview, in Gudmundur Alfredsson, etc., ed., International Human Rights MonitoringMechanisms, Martinus Niihoff, 2001, p.845.
{30}Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, World Conference on Human Rights, U. N. GAOR, 48th Sess., II 38, U. N. DocA/Conf/57/22（1993）.
{31}See Robert Charles Blitt, Who Will Watch the Watchdogs ?Human Rights Nongovernmental Organizations and the Case for Regula-tion, in International Journal of Civil Society Law, Vol.5, 2007, p.35.
{32 }General Review of Arrangements for Consultations with Non-Governmental Organizations（Report of the Secretary-General） E/AC.70/1994/5 of 26 May 1994, para. 40.
{33}See Henry J Steiner, Diverse Partners: Non-governmental Organizations in the Human Rights Movement: The Report of a Retreatof Human Rights Activists, Harvard Law School, 1991, p.19.
{34}Ibid., p.19.
{35}See Makau Mutua, Human Rights International NGOs: A Critical Evaluation, in Claude E. Welch, ed., NGOs and Human Rights:Promise and Performance, University of Pennsylvania Press, p.156.
{36}See Henry J Steiner, Diverse Partners: Non-governmental Organizations in the Human Rights Movement: The Report of a Retreat of Human Rights Activists, Harvard Law School. 1991, p.11.
{37} See Henry J Steiner, Diverse Partners: Non-governmental Organizations in the Human Rights Movement: The Report of a Retreat of Human Rights Activists, Harvard Law School, 1991, p.39.
{38}See Harry M. Scoble and Laurie S. Wiseberg. Human Rights and Amnesty International, in Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol.413, No.1, 1974, p.11.
{39}See D.Wiessbrodt and J. Mccarthy, Fact-Finding by Nongovernmental Organizations, in B.G．Ramcharan, ed., InternationalLawand Fact-Finding in the Field of Human Rights, Martinus Nijhoff, 1982, p.187
{40}See H. Thoolen and B. Verstappen. Human Rights Missions: A Study of the Fact-Finding Practice of Von-governmental Organiza-tions, Springer, 1987, p. 129.
{41}See D.Wiessbrodt and J. Mccarthy, Fact-Finding by Nongovernmental Organizations, in B. G. Ramcharan, ed., International Lawand Fact-Finding in the Field of Human Rights, Martinus Nijhoff, 1982, p. 203. 207.
{42}See Ann Marie Clark, Diplomacy of Conscience: A mnesty International and Changing Human Rights Norms, Princeton UniversityPress, 2001, p.132
{43}See H. Thoolen and B. Verstappen， Human Rights Missions: A Study of the Fact-Finding Practice of Non-governmental Organiza-tions, Springer, 1987, p. 130.
{44}See D.Wiessbrodt and J. Mccarthy, Fact-Finding by Nongovernmental Organizations, in B. G. Ramcharan, ed., International Lawand Fact-Finding in the Field of Human Rights, Martinus Nijhoff, 1982, p. 204, 210.
{45 }See H. Thoolen and B. Verstappen, Human Rights Missions: A Study of the Fact-Finding Practice of Non-governmental Organiza-tions, Springer, 1987, pp. 134-135.
{46}See D.Wiessbrodt and J. Mccarthy, Fact-Finding by Nongovernmental Organizations, in B. G. Ramcharan, ed., International Lawand Fact-Finding in the Field of Human Rights, Martinus Nijhoff, 1982, pp. 205-206.
{47}See L. Gordenker and T.G. Weiss, Pluralizing Global Governance: Analytical Approachesand Dimensions, in T.G. Weiss andLGordenker NGOs, ed., NGOs, the UN，and Global Governance,Lynne Rienner Puv., 1996, p.186.
{48}See D. Stubbings, The Challenge of Protection and Monitoring: An NGO Perspective, in Robert G. Patman, Universal HumanRights?, Palgrave Macmillan, 2000, p.255.
{49}See J.G. Smith and R. Pagnucco, Globalizing HumanRights: The Work of Transnational Human Rights NGOs in the 1990s, inHuman. Rights Quarterly, Vol.20, 1998, p.379.
{50}See M. Edwards and D. Hulme, Introduction, in Michael Edwards and David Hulme, ed.. Beyond the Magic Bullet: NGO Perfor-mance and Accountability in the Post-Cold War World. Kumarian Press, 1996, p.7.
{51}See Rachel Brett, The Role and Limits of Human Rights NGOs at the United Nations, in Political Studies, Vol. 43, 1995, p. 98.
{52}See J.S. Ovsiovitch, Feeding the Watchdogs: Philanthropic Support for Human Rights NGOs, in Buffalo Human Rights Law Review,Vol.4，1998, p.344.
{53}See Joseph Carens. The Problem of Doing Good in a World That Isn''t: Reflections on the Ethical Challenges Facing INGOs, inDaniel A. Bell and Jean-Marc Coicaud, ed., Ethics in A ction: The Ethical Challenges of International Human Rights Nongovern-mental Organizations, Cambridge University Press, 2006, pp. 257-262.
{54}See Laurie S. Wiseberg, Protecting Human Rights Activists and NGOs: What More can be Done? in Human Rights Quarterly, Vol.13, 1991, pp. 525-544.
{55}参见石国亮：《青年国际政治研究的新范式—意识形态视野中的青年和青年组织》，人民出版社2007年版，第140页。
{56}Henry J. Sterner, Philip Alston and Ryan Goodman, International Human Rights in Context: Law, Politics, Morals（3rd edition）,Oxford University Press, 2007, p.1421.
{57}See Henry J Steiner, Diverse Partners: Non-governmental Organizations in the Human Rights Movement: The Report of a Retreat of Human Rights Activists, Harvard Law School, 1991, p.5.
