五、结语
就全球而言,北冰洋海域方面产生争端并不特殊。因为全世界近乎400处海洋边界,过半尚未得到解决。[37]随着北极冰盖的逐渐融化,蕴藏的丰富资源和极具商业价值的航道从潜在利益变成现实利益,尤其是商业运营大西洋至太平洋的“西北航道”成为可能,北冰洋海域就开始从“科学考察时代”步入“权益纷争时代”。综观国际海洋法的发展,一方面要求沿海国行驶管辖权时顾及国际社会的综合利益,另一方面,则是根据保护海洋环境的需要对航行自由和捕鱼自由进行适当的限制。20世纪国际海洋法发展的传统表述,就是用沿岸国家(coastal State)和海洋国家( maritime State)之间利益的平衡加以分类和解释的。[38]在尊重沿岸国家依据国际法拥有权益的前提下,为解决西北航道争端应平衡“航行自由”与“沿海国管辖权”之间的利益冲突,利益相关的国家可借鉴马六甲海峡成功经验,通过相互协商以签订国际合作协定。必须看到,气候变暖既可能加剧北极航道之争端,也给利益相关国家以“综合管理方法”保护西北航道乃至整个北冰洋海域的生态环境创造契机。总之,相较于航道利益和自然资源的争夺,西北航道的变迁也是国际安全的隐患,保护该海域生态环境更是刻不容缓的问题。
【作者简介】
韩逸畴,单位为华东政法大学。
【注释】政府间气候变化专门委员会(IPCC):气候变化2007综合报告,载http: //www.ipcc. ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/syr/ar4_syr_cn. pdf, 2010年10月2日访问。
Donat Pharand, Canada''s Arctic Waters in International Law, Cambridge University Press,1988, p. 252.但是,当直线基线法(straight baseline system)列入1958年《领海和毗连区公约》时对这方面作了修改。如果在此之前封闭水域是领海或者公海,则适用无害通过。
加拿大还提出直线基线和权利强化(Straight Baselines and Consolidated Title)以支持其主张。See Hannah E. King, Protecting the Northwest Passage:Assessing the Threat of Year-Round Shippingto the Marine Ecosystem and the Adequacy of the Current Environmental Regulatory Regimes, Ocean andCoastal Law Journal, Vol. 14, No. 2,2009,pp. 282-283
Donat Pharand; Canada''s Arctic Waters in International Law,Cambridge University Press,1988,p. 112.
根据《联合国海洋法公约》第15条规定,公约并不排斥或否认,有时一国在其邻接水域具有特殊之“历史性权利”,而使得此水域成为某种“历史性水域”。参见傅崐成:《海洋法专题研究》,厦门大学出版社2004年版,第324页。
在“英挪渔业案”中,历史因素建立在两个方面:首先,挪威援用历史确认其直线基线是低潮线原则的特殊应用;其次,挪威援用历史性权利作为附加的证明。在这里,历史只是作为一种补充性和从属性的基础,以巩固或强化来源于主要依据的权利。1909年,格里斯巴丹那仲裁案(Grisbadarna Case)第一次明确适用历史性的权利强化(consolidation of title)概念,即证明其所有之原始性权利(inchoate title)已落实强化(consolidation ),成为有效占领。See DonatPharand, Canada''s Arctic Waters in International Law,Cambridge University Press, 1988, pp. 140-141.
参见傅崐成:《海洋法专题研究》,厦门大学出版社2004年版,第329页。See alsoJuridical Regime of Historic Waters, Including Historic Bays, U. N Doc A/CN. 4/143(1962),p. 56;James Kraska, The Law of the Sea Convention and the Northwest Passage,The International Journal ofMarine and Coastal Law, Vol 22,No. 2,2007,p. 265.
See Matthew L. Hoppe, Environmental Protection for the New Northwest Passage, ColoradoJournal of International Environmental Law and Policy, fall 2008,p. 81.
See Rob Huebert, The Coming Arctic Maritime Sovereignty Crisis,Arctic Bulletin, No. 2.04,July 2004, p. 24.
土耳其海峡(又称黑海海峡Black Sea Straits)是连接黑海与地中海的唯一通道,包括达达尼尔海峡(Dardanelles)和博斯普鲁斯(Bosporus)海峡,是唯一联系地中海和黑海的通道,1936年《蒙特勒公约》重新确认土耳其对海峡设防拥有全权,并限制非黑海地区国家的海军进人海峡。
See James Kraska, The Law of the Sea Convention and the Northwest Passage, The InternationalJournal of Marine and Coastal Law, Vol. 22, No. 2, 2007,p. 272.
Willy Ostreng, National Security and the Evolving Issues of Arctic Environment and Cooperation,by Willy Ostreng(Editor),National Security and International Environmental Cooperation in the Arctic—the Case of the Northern Sea Route, Kluwer, 1999, p. 50.
根据《联合国海洋法公约》第56条第(1)款(a)项、(b)项。
1958年《领海及毗连区公约》第16条第4款规定,船舶有权通过连接公海的两部分或连接公海的一部分和一国领海的一部分之间的用于国际航行的海峡。此种通过不得阻断。无论是商船还是军舰都享有通过国际海峡的自由。就连接公海两部分的海峡而言,这一规则是习惯国际法的宣示。
See James Kraska, The Law of the Sea Convention and the Northwest Passage, The InternationalJournal of Marine and Coastal Law, Vol. 22, No. 2, 2007,p. 270.
See Tanaka Yoshifumi, A Dual Approach to Ocean Governance:the Cases of Zonal andIntegrated Management in International Law of the Sea, Ashgate Pub.,2008,p. 239.
See Donat Pharand, Canada''s Arctic Waters in International Law, Cambridge University Press,1988,pp. 221-223.
See Donat Pharand, Canada''s Arctic Waters in International Law, Cambridge University Press,1988,p. 229.
John Honderich, Arctic Imperative; Is Cananda Losing the North?, Tronto University Press,1987, p. 41;转引自郭培清等著:《北极航道的国际问题研究》,海洋出版社2009年版,第50页。
See Donat Pharand, Canada''s Arctic Waters in International Law,Cambridge University Press,1988,p. 230.
See Posner, Eric A. and Sykes, Alan 0.,Economic Foundations of the Law of the Sea, U ofChicago Law & Economics, Olin Working Paper, No. 504, 2009, p. 15.
See Craigh H. Allen, Revisiting the Thames Formula: The Evolving Role of the InternationalMaritime Organization and Its Member States in Implementing the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention, SanDiego International Law Journal, Spring, 2009,pp. 542-543.
See James Kraska, The Law of the Sea Convention and the Northwest Passage,The InternationalJournal of Marine and Coastal Law, Vol. 22, No. 2, 2007,p. 279.
International Cooperation on Malacca Strait Safety, Mar. Executive, Sep. 13,2007,http: //www. maritime-utive. com/article/2007-09-13 international-cooperation-agreement-on/, visited onMarch 20 .2009.
See James Kraska, The Law of the Sea Convention and the Northwest Passage, The InternationalJournal of Marine and Coastal Law, Vol. 22, No. 2, 2007,p. 280.
Tanaka Yoshifumi, A Dual Approach to Ocean Governance:the Cases of Zonal and IntegratedManagement in International Law of the Sea, Ashgate Pub.,2008,p. 239.
根据《联合国海洋法公约》第3、33、57条和第71条第6款。然而,第8、 49条规定的内水和群岛水域构成例外。这两种制度决定于以基线为标准的空间距离。此外,第86条公海的定义是不包括在国家的专属经济区、领海或内水或群岛国的群岛水域内的全部海域。See TanakaYoshifumi, A Dual Approach to Ocean Governance:the Cases of Zonal and Integrated Management inInternational Law of the Sea, Ashgate Pub.,2008,p. 6.
See Tanaka Yoshifumi, Zonal and Integrated Management Approaches to Ocean Governance:Reflections on a Dual Approach in International Law of the Sea,The International Journal of Marine andCoastal Law, Vol. 19, No.4,p. 486.
See Tanaka Yoshifumi, Zonal and Integrated Management Approaches to Ocean Governance:Reflections on a Dual Approach in International Law of the Sea,The International Journal of Marine andCoastal Law, Vol. 19, No.4,pp. 487-488.
关于海洋治理新方法,很多学者提出自己的建议。例如,寻求“生物一地理统一性”和“法律统一性”之间的协调;Scelle提出,包括领海在内的整个海洋应视为国际公共空间(domainepublic international),认为将大陆架和上覆水域进行分割并不现实而且批评大陆架的概念;Nguyen Quoc Dinh认为,海洋、国际运河、国际河流和空气,以及外层空间都是国际公共空间,但是对内水和领海隶属于沿海国家表示认同;还有一种整体方法(holistic approach)提出“人类共同遗产”的概念。《联合国海洋法公约》第136条、第137条、第140条第1款也有规定。当然,在1982年《联合国海洋法公约》中,该概念的适用限于针对“区域”资源。Oda认为,“人类共同遗产”的概念作为应有法(lex ferenda)应当适用于生物资源甚至整个海洋。See Tanaka Yoshifumi,A Dual Approach to Ocean Governance:the Cases of Zonal and Integrated Management in InternationalLaw of the Sea, Ashgate Pub.,2008,pp. 8-15.
Available at http: //www. un. org/esa/dsd/agenda2l/res-agenda2l _ 00. shtml. visited onMarch 10, 2009.
UN General Assembly Resolution 56/12, Ocean and the law of the sea, A/RES/56/12,Distr. 13 December 2001,para. 48.
A/RES/57/261,27 February, 2003.
Tanaka Yoshifurni, A Dual Approach to Ocean Governance:the Cases of Zonal and IntegratedManagement in International Law of the Sea, Ashgate Pub.,2008,pp. 17-18.
Sara Eddy, Helen Fast, Thomas Henley, Integrated Management Planning in Canada''sNorthern Marine Environment: Engaging Coastal Communities, Arctic. Vol. 55,No. 3. September 2002,p. 292.
See Tanaka Yoshifumi, A Dual Approach to Ocean Governance: the Cases of Zonal andIntegrated Management in International Law of the Sea, Ashgate Pub.,2008,pp. 240-241.
See Hoel, Alf Hakon, Do We Need a New Legal Regime for the Arctic Ocean?, The InternationalJournal of Marine and Coastal Law, Vol. 24,No. 2 .P. 445.
Ted L. McDorman, Canada-United States Cooperative Approaches to Shared Manne Fishery Resources: Territorial Subversion?,Michigan Journal of International Law,Vol. 30,pp. 665,667.