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安理会反恐“聪明制裁”之困境及其出路

  

  在上述措施均不足以弥补现有体制缺陷的情形下,笔者认为,安理会可以选择下列路径对“1267体制”进行进一步改革,以加强安理会“1267体制”的正当性和合法性。


  

  其一,建立审议除名的专家组制度。联合国秘书长应维持一份由秘书长和安理会各理事国提名的专家组名单,被列人名单的专家应同时具有法律、人权、反恐等相关领域的专业知识并拥有丰富实践经验。个人或实体被1267委员会列入制裁名单后,有关列名情况应立即通知被列名的个人,个人对列名有异议的可申请启动专家组程序。专家组可由三名专家组成,申请人和指认国分别在名单中指定一名专家,而第三名专家由申请人和指认国共同指定,如果双方达不成合意,则该名专家由联合国秘书长指定。专家组在审核有关证据并听取双方答辩后在规定期限内作出是否除名的裁决,专家组同时还应对错误列名给当事人造成的损害作出赔偿决定。对于赔偿资金的来源,笔者认为,安理会可建立专门的赔偿基金,该基金主要由指认国在提交列名建议时所交纳的一定数额的资金组成,如果事后证明当事人被错误列名,有关的经济赔偿可从该基金中向当事人拨付。专家组所作的裁决对1267委员会具有拘束力。很明显,专家组制度是仲裁性质的,该制度保障了受制裁影响的个人的知情权、答辩权和获得赔偿权,但是,仲裁毕竟不同于司法,而诉诸司法是公正审判权的固有内涵,因此,这一制度并不是保障当事人公正审判权的最优选择而只是一个现阶段相对可行的途径。


  

  其二,设立独立的国际行政法庭,为个人维护其基本权利提供司法救济。由于联合国这样的国际组织在其成员国境内享有司法豁免权,因此受该组织决定影响的个人难以求助于国际组织外部的司法系统以维护自身的合法权益。“国际组织享有司法豁免权的自然结果是国际组织有义务为其卷入的冲突或纠纷的解决建立相应的司法制度”,[59]联合国行政法庭[60]的建立正是基于这样的理念。针对直接影响个人权益的制裁体制,安理会可建立与联合国行政法庭类似的专门的国际行政法庭为个人提供司法救济渠道。该行政法庭的组成和庭审程序都可仿效联合国行政法庭的模式,而法官的任职资格则应与上述专家组的专家资格相同。受制裁的当事人对1267委员会所作的列名决定有异议的,可直接向该法庭提起诉讼,该诉讼的另一方当事人为 1267委员会或其代表。法庭在审查有关证据后作出对1267委员会有拘束力的判决。无疑,在当事人遭受的制裁堪比刑事处罚的情况下,建立专门的国际行政法庭是保障个人公正审判权的最佳途径,但同时这也是最激进的一种改革方式,因为法庭的建立等于为安理会的行动设定了外部审查机制,由于《联合国宪章》对此没有明确规定,因此,这一改革能否实现将完全取决于安理会是否有约束自身权限的意愿。


  

  其三,彻底抛弃1267决议的现有模式而改用1373号决议的模式来打击基地组织、本·拉丹或塔利班的恐怖主义行为。虽然1373号决议也要求成员国对实施或参与实施恐怖主义行为的个人或实体采取冻结资产、限制旅行等制裁措施,但是,1373号决议之下的义务是笼统的,它并没有附加安理会直接拟定的制裁名单,而是由成员国根据决议规定的制裁标准自行确定制裁对象。笔者认为,针对基地组织或塔利班的恐怖主义行为,安理会也可仿效1373模式,只确定制裁的标准(即与基地组织及本·拉丹或塔利班“有关联”)和相应的制裁措施,而让各成员国根据其国内法程序确定具体制裁对象,在此情形下,由于有关制裁决定纯系一国国内的行政或司法决定,因此,受制裁影响的个人完全可以要求该国国内法院对制裁决定进行司法审查并给予相应的救济。显然,采用1373模式可以使安理会彻底摆脱对其侵犯个人公正审判权的直接指控,但是,与1267模式相比,1373模式可能会在一定程度上影响反恐行动的统一性和有效性。因为,在这一执行模式下,安理会反恐决议的执行效果将取决于各个成员国的执行意愿和执行能力。


  

  五、结语


  

  安理会反恐“聪明制裁”体制引发的人权危机及其面临的执行困境反映了国际法律秩序的日益复杂化,安理会这样的国际机构越来越多地出台直接影响个人法律权利的决议或措施,却没有同时在国际层面建立与国内社会相当的对个人权利的保护机制,从而造成了明显的权力与权利间的不对称现象。安理会的“1267体制”已被认为是霸权国际法的代表和马基雅弗利主义的体现,国内法院的相关实践以及国际法学者对该体制的批评反映了国际社会要将政治权力控制在法律限度内的意愿。可见,即便作为全球最强势的政治机构,安理会也必须在国际法的限度内行事才能使其所作决议得到广泛接受和有效遵守。正如美国着名国际法学者Jose Alvarez教授所言:“联合国集体安全制度的有效性并非来自于其军事力量的现实威胁,而是源于对这些观念和原则的成功信守—和平、反殖民、人权,并且最重要的是信奉这样的理念:国际法主体必须在法治的原则下行为。”[61]


【作者简介】
顾婷,单位为苏州大学。
【注释】See Finnur Magnusson, Targeted Sanctions and Accountability of the United Nations'' Security Council, A Paper Concluding a Courseon the Accountability of International Organizations, June 2008, p. 4, http: //public. univie. ac. at/fileadmin/user-upload/legal-studies/student-paper/SC-Terrorist-List-Finnur-Magnusson.pdf,last visit on Sep. 1,2011.
See Joseph Stephanides, Foreword, in David Cortright, George A. Lopez (eds.),Smart Sanctions: Targeting Economic Statecraft,Rowman&Little Field Publishers, 2002, vii.
随后的决议,包括S/RES/1333 (2000)、S/RES/1390 (2002) 、 S/RES/1455(2003)、S/RES/1526(2004)、S/RES/1617 (2005)、 S/RES/1735(2006)、S/RES/1822(2008)、S/RES/1904(2009)。
See Security Council Committee Established Pursuant to Resolution 1267 (1999) Concerning Al-Qaida and the Taliban and AssociatedIndividuals and Entities, http: //www. un. org/sc/committees/1267/index. shtml, last visit on Jan. 6, 2011.
名单由联合国各成员国或国际组织根据情报提供给委员会审议后确定,而除名请求可由个人直接或通过其居住国或国籍国提交给委员会,由委员会(由安理会全体理事国的外交代表组成)以协商一致的方式作出,目前有391名个人和92个实体在这个名单上。同上注。
尽管安理会一再强调由于有关制裁措施是预防性的而非惩罚性的,因此,刑事指控或定罪不是列入综合名单的必要条件,但是,不少学者都认为制裁措施的严厉性质、由制裁委员会决策程序导致的除名的困难以及制裁实质上不受时间限制等因素使得“1267体制”下的制裁几乎等同于刑事处罚。See Martin Scheinin, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights andFundamental Freedoms While Countering Terrorism, A/61/267(2006),para. 35. See Antonios Tzanakopoulos, Domestic Court Reactions toUN Security Council Sanctions, in August Remisch (ed.),Challenging Acts of International Organizations Before National Courts, OxfordUniversity Press, 2010, pp. 54—55. See also Andrew Hudson, Not a Great Asset: The UN Security Council''s Counter—Terrorism Regime:Violating Human Rights, Berkeley Journal of International Law, Vol.25, 2007, p. 116.
See Antonios Tzanakopoulos, From Interpretation to Defiance, Abdelrazik v. Canada and United Nations Sanctions in DomesticCourts, Journal of International Criminal Justice, Vol.8, 2010, p.263.
See Joint Cases C—402/05 P&C—415/05 P, Yassin Abdullab Kadi&Al Barakaat International Foundation v. Council of European and Commission of the European Communities ECR I—6351 (3 September 2008).
See T—318/01,Omar Mobammed Othman v. Council of European and Commission of the European Communities ECRII—0000 (11 June 2009).
See Abousfian Abdelrazik v. Minister of Foreign Affairs and Attorney General of Canada, 2009 FC 580, 4 June 2009.
See HM Treasury v. Mohammed Jabar Ahmed and ors (FC).HM Treasury v. Mohammed al—Ghabra (FC).R (on the Applicationof Hani El Sayed Sabaei Youssef) v. HM Treasury R(Al—Jedda) v. The Secretary of State of Defence, Court of Appeal, (2006) EWCA Cia327, 29 March 2006, per Brooke LJ UKSC 2.
20世纪90年代初,伊斯兰会议组织(OIC)曾号召联合国成员国不要遵守涉及波斯尼亚的针对前南斯拉夫的武器禁运决议,认为该决议侵犯了波斯尼亚的自卫权。1998年,53个非统组织(OAU)成员认为对利比亚的制裁违反了《联合国宪章》而拒绝执行。SeeAntonios Tzanakopoulos, Human Rights and United Nations Security Council Measures, in Erika De Wet&Jure Vidmar (eds.),Norm Con-flicts in Public International Law: The Place of Human Rights, Forthcoming, footnote 45.
Statement by the President of the Security Council, S/PRST/2011/9, http: //daccess一dds一ny. un. org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N1 1 /320/27/PDF/N1132027. pdf? OpenElement,last visit on May 5, 2011.
See Statement by the Committee on Usama Bin Laden,http://www.un.org/sc/ comnuttees/1267/, last visit on May 5, 2011.
《联合国宪章》第1条规定,联合国之宗旨为:一、维持国际和平与安全;并为此目的:采取有效集体办法,以防止且消除对于和平之威胁、制止侵略行为或其他和平之破坏;并以和平方法且依正义及国际法之原则,调整和解决足以破坏和平之国际争端或情势……。
See Bernd Martenezuk, The Security Council, the International Court and Judicial Review: What Lessons from Lockerbie? EuropeanJournal of International Law, Vol. 10, 1999, p.545.
《联合国宪章》第103条规定:“联合国会员国在本宪章之下的义务与其依任何其他国际协定所负之义务有冲突时,其在本宪章下之义务优先。”
See Hans Kelsen, The law of the United Nations: A Critical Analysis of Its Fundamental Problems (with Supplement),The LawbookExchange Ltd.,New Jersey, 2000, p.294.
Prosecutor v. Tadic, Appeal on Jurisdiction, Case IT—94—I—AR72 (2 October 1995),para. 28.
Interpretation of the Agreement of 25 March 1951 between the WHO and Egypt, ICJ Reports 1980, pp. 89—90.
参见阿尔弗雷德·菲德罗斯、斯特凡·菲罗斯塔、卡尔·策马内克:《国际法》上册,李浩培译,商务印书馆1981年版,第163页。
See Alfred Verdross, Jus Dispositivum and Jus Cogens in International Law, American Journal of International Law, Vol. 60, 1966,p. 58. See also Alexander Orakhelashvili, The Impact of Peremptory Norms on the Interpretation and Application of United Nations SecurityCouncil Resolutions, The European Journal of International Law,Vol. 16 , 2005, p. 62.
August Reinisch, Developing Human Right and Humanitarian Law Accountability of the Security Council for the Imposition of Eco-nomic Sanctions, American Journal of International Law, Vol.95, 2001,p.859.
Separate Opinion of Judge Lauterpacht, Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide(Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro),ICJ Reports 1993,p440.
Frowein&Kirsch, Introduction to Chapter VII, in Bruno Simma(ed.),The Chapter of the United Nations: A Commentary, OxfordUniversity Press, 2002, p.711.
See Daniel Halberstam and Eric Stein, The United Nations, the European , and the King of Sweden: Economic Sanctions andIndividual Rights in a Plural World Ordei,Common Market Law Review, Vol.46, 2009, p.23.
同上注,第24页。
参见曹盛、朱立恒:《公平审判权的宪法性论说》,《当代法学》2009年第4期。
在国际人权法中,公正审判权是以《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》第14条为核心内容的一系列权利的总称,具有主体多样性和内容广泛性的特征,主要包括法庭前的平等权利,获得公开、公正审判的权利,被推定为无罪的权利,被告知指控的权利,辩护的权利等。
在人权习惯国际法规则的形成问题上,学者普遍认同法律确信的因素比惯行的因素更为重要。See B. Simma and P. Alston,The Sources of Human Rights Law: Custom, Jus Cogens, and General Principles, Australian Year Book of International Law, Vol. 12, 1992,p.82.
Thomas Buergenthal, The Evolving International Human Rights System, American Journal of International Law, Vol. 100, p. 790.
See Prosecutor v. Tadic, Allegation of Contempt, Case IT—94—1—A—AR77 (27 February 2001);Prosecutor v. Sam Hinga Nor-man, Case No. SCSL—2003—08—PT, para.19.
同前注,Antonios Tzanakopoulos文,第7页。
Human Rights Committee, General Comment No.29, CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add. 11,para. 11.
Ibid, para.16.
同前注,August Reinisch文,第852页。
See Enzo Cannizzaro, A Machiavellian Moment? The UN Security Council and the Rule of Law, International Organization Law Review, 2006, Vol. 3, footnote 4.
See Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa)Notwithstanding Securi-ty Council Resolution 276 (1970),Advisory Opinion, ICJ Reports 1971, p.45.
See Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Provisional Measures, Order of 13September 1993, ICJ Reports 1993, p.345
在“1267体制”之前,很少有个人就安理会决议的合法性问题在一国国内法院提起诉讼,少量的事例主要涉及安理会设立前南国际刑事法庭、卢旺达国际刑事法庭的决议的合法性问题,被上述法庭追诉的少数个人由于不愿被引渡到法庭受审,而在相关国家的国内法院就安理会决议的合法性问题提起诉讼,如海牙地方法院审理的Milosevic v. the Netherlands案、瑞士最高法院受理的EmmanuelRukundo v. l''Office federal de is justice案。See August Reinisch, Should Judge Second—Guess the UN Security Council? International Organ i-zation Law Review, Vol.6, 2009, pp.264—265.
同前注,Finnur Magnusson文,第20页。
See Case T—315/01,Yassin Abdullah Kadi v. Council and Commission, Court of First Instance, 21 September 2005, ECR II—3649. Case T—315/01, Yusuf and Al Barakaat International Foundation v. Council and Commission, Court of First Instance, 21 September2005, ECR II—3533, para.226
See Youssef Nada v. State Secretariat for Economic Affairs and Federal Department of Economic Affairs, Administrative Appeal Judg-ment, Case No 1A 45/2007, Switzerland, Federal Tribunal, 14 November 2007, para. 7.
See Agrim Behrami and Bekir Behrami v. France, Ruzhdi Saramati v. France, Norway and Germany, European Court of HumruRights, 2 May 2007, joined App. Nos. 71412/01& 78166/01, paras. 148—149
See R (Al—Jedda) v. the Secretary of State of Defense, Court of Appeal, EWCA Civ 327, 29 March 2006, para. 74.
See Nabil Sayadi and Patricia Vinck v. Belgian State, Tribunal de premiere instance de Buxelles 4th Ch.,II February 2005, Cited inThird Report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team Appointed Pursuant to Res. 1526(2004) Concerning Al—Qaida and theTaliban and Associated Individuals and Entities, UN Doc. S/2005/572, pp.48—49.
See Dubsky v. Ireland and Others, (IE 2005) ILDC 485, para. 91.
Antonios Tzanakopoulos, Judicial Dialogue in Multi—level Governance: The Impact of the Solange Argument,in Unity or Fragmenta-tion of International Law: The Role of International and National Tribunals, Fauchald, Ole Kristian&Nollkaemper, Andre (eds.),Hart, Ox-ford 2010, p.13
瑞士在执行1267决议时,国内曾规定了一个暂缓执行制裁措施的期间,在此期间内列入制裁名单的当事人可获得陈述和答辩的机会。但是,1267委员会对瑞士的做法表示了批评:“委员会希望澄清的是这些措施与成员国在《联合国宪章》第七章下的义务不符。因此,委员会敦促成员国保证在委员会将个人或实体列入名单后立即冻结其财产。”“1267体制”下义务的严格性由此可见一斑。SeeLetter Sent by the President of the Sanctions Committee Under Resolution 1267 to the President of the Security Council of 1 December 2005,UN Doc. S/2005/760.
Remarks of Kimberly Prost, Ombudsperson, 1267 Al Qaida/Taliban Sanctions Committee Delivered to the Informal Meeting of LegalAdvisors 25 October 2010, http: //www. un. org/en/sc/ombudsperson/pdfs/2010. 10. 25-E. pdf, last visit on Sep.5, 2011.
Broadbent v. Organization of American States, 628 F. 2d 27, 202 U. S. App. D. C. 27, p. 34.
Eur. Court H. R.,Waite and Kennedy v. Germany, Judgment of 18 February 1999, para. 63.
See Erica de wet and Andre Nollkaemper, Review of Security Council Decisions by National Courts, German Yearbook of InternationalLaw, Vol.45, 2002, p.196.
David D. Caron, The Legitimacy of the Collective Authority of the Security Council, American Journal of International Law, Vol. 87,1993, p.578.
1965年11月11日,在与英国政府就独立问题进行谈判的过程中,南罗得西亚的少数人政权单方面宣布脱离英国独立。安理会随后认定南罗得西亚持续反抗英国统治的叛乱构成了对国际和平与安全的威胁,并于1966年根据宪章第七章对南罗得西亚实施了强制性经济制裁。See Alan J Kreczko, The Unilateral Termination of UN Sanctions Against Southern Rhodesia by the United Kingdom, VirginiaJournal of International Law, Vol.21, 1981,pp.97—98.
同上注,第9-~100页。
Christian Walter, Constitutionalizing (Inter)national Governance—Possibilities for and Limits of the Development of an InternationalConstitutional Law, German Yearbook of International Law, Vol.44, 2001, p. 197.
同前注, Frowein & Kirsch书,第867页。
August Reinisch and Ulf Andreas Weber, In the Shadow of Waite and Kennedy, the Jurisdictional Immunity of International Organiza-tions, The Individual''s Right of Access to the Courts and Administrative Tribunals as Alternative Means of Dispute Settlement, InternationalOrganizations Law Review, Vol.1,2004, p.70.
联合国行政法庭由联合国大会于1949年设立,主要处理联合国雇员与联合国之间就雇佣合同引发的争议。该法庭已被联大于2009年设立的联合国争议法庭及其上诉机关联合国上诉法庭替代。
Jose E.Alvarez,Judging the Security Council'',American Journal of Interna tional Law, Vol. 90, 1996, p.31.


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