【作者简介】
周国文，单位为重庆大学。
【注释】2009年10月，国家青少年黑帮研究中心与司法援助局（the Bureau of Justice Assistance）设立于2003年的国家黑帮犯罪研究中心（the National Gang Center，简称NGC）合并，成为新的国家黑帮犯罪研究中心。
【参考文献】{1}See Chicago Crime Commission. Gangs: Public Enemy Number One, 75Years of Fighting Crime in Chicagoland.Chicago: Chicago Crime Commission, 1995.
{2}阎桂玲．困扰美国的青少年帮派问题[J]．青少年犯罪问题，2001, (2).
{3}余珊燕等．青少年学生集结团伙问题的中美比较[J]．青少年研究，2005, (4).
{4}金诚．中美青少年团伙犯罪研讨会综述[J].青少年犯罪问题，2008, (5).
{5}See James C. Howell and John P. More.” History of Street Gangs in the United States”．National Gang Center Bulletin,May 2010.
http://www.nationalgangcenter.gov /Publications＃Surveys
{6}See 18USC*521(a)、*521 (c).
{7}See"Brief Review of Federal and State Definitions of the Terms ''Gang, '' ''Gang Crime,’and ''Gang Member''"(pdf)，
http://www.nationalgangcenter.gov/Content/Documents/Definitions.pdf, December 2009, pp1-2.
{8}John P. Moore ． Highlights of the 1995 National Youth Gang Survey (pdf)．Fact Sheet ＃63, April 1997.http://wwwnationalgangcenter.gov/About/Surveys-and-Analyses
{9}See"National Youth Gang Survey Analysis".http://www.nationalgangcenter.gov/Survey-Analysis
{10}Arlen Egley, Jr. and Christina E. O''Donnell, "Highlights of the 2007 National Youth Gang Survey" (pdf)，
http://www.nationalgangcenter.gov/About/Surveys-and-Analyses{11}James C. Howell, "Gang Prevention: An Overview of Research and Programs", p2,
www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/231116.pdf{12}See Michelle Arciaga, Wayne Sakamoto, and Errika Fearbry Jones, "Responding to Gangs in the School Setting",National Gang Center, No.5, November 2010,
www.nationalgangcenter.gov/Content/Documents.
{13}See Decker, S.H., and Van Winkle, B. 1996. Life in the Gang: Family, Friends, and Violence. New York, NY:Cambridge University Press．转引自James C. Howell, "Gang Prevention: An Overview of Research and Programs", p4,www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/231116.pdf
{14}Esbensen, F.-A., Deschenes, E.P., and Winfree, L.T. 1999."Differences between gang girls and gang boys:Results from a multi-site survey". Youth and Society 31:27-53.转引自James C. Howell, "Gang Prevention: An Overview of Research and Programs", p4,
www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/231116.pdf>.
{15}周国文．刑罚的界限——Joel Feinberg的“道德界限”与超越[M]．北京：中国检察出版社，2008.157.
