在WTO各成员产生具体共识前,我们只能期待是否可藉由争端解决机制之相关案例,找出调和之方式。然而,在前述CTE 之报告中,也提及“WTO之成员,虽有权提交相关争端至争端解决机制,但如果某一争端之当事方,同时也是多边环境协议之缔约方,则理应诉诸多边环境协议之争端解决方式”。[62]于此,展现了在贸易与环境之争端中“特别法优先于普通法”之想法。然而,如果相关贸易与环境争端,仅有一方为多边环境协议之缔约方,则应该于何处解决,问题就变得复杂。
回到争端解决机制,则悖论依旧存在:争端解决机制是否该适用争端当事国家所有相关国际法规则,即使这些并非WTO法制中之规范?此外,争端解决机制是否可能以最宽松之方式诠释“当事国间”之概念,而容许气候变化框架公约与京都议定书在WTO相关争端中得以适用?欲回答这些问题,我们可能必须不幸地等到具体争端发生后争端解决机制之认定。
三、结论
即便WTO之会员、学说、相关案例皆展现了调和国际贸易发展与环境保护之意愿,真正要达成此一目的还有相当困难。如果运用“演化性解释”之法律解释方法,并坚持WTO法体系绝非自绝于其它国际法体系之外,则基于气候变化框架公约与京都议定书所采取之各项措施,有可能藉由GATT 第XX 条,在WTO法制下例外地证成。然而,整体气候变化法制仍在持续发展中,尤其是后京都时期(2012 年之后)相关措施是否会有变化,还值得持续观察。例如在2009 年底落幕之哥本哈根会议,可说是毁多于誉。而会议之结果,所宣布之未经全体会员国大会通过之“哥本哈根协议”,虽然提出不少方案,例如发达国家对于发展中国家之经济援助、财务机制,甚至具体提出“2℃”之全球气温上升上限目标,然而相关机制与目标,如何达成,于何时前达成,对于此等具体问题,并无规范。究其法律性质,与其说是国际法法源上之“宣言”,不如说是无拘束力之政治语言,或者充其量作为诠释气候变化框架公约之“后续国家实践”。此等“软法”,或者有人认为根本就不是法,对于后京都时期之变化,在新的有拘束力之国际文件出台前,暂时应无太多影响。然而,此一协议中所涉及之财务机制或经济、技术援助与WTO法制之兼容性如何,则亦如前述,有待于具体个案中澄清。
【作者简介】
许耀明,台湾政治大学助理教授。
【注释】关于气候变化之一般性介绍以及其相关经济工具,参见P.-D. Cameron, The Kyoto protocol : past, present and future , in P.-D. Cameron and D. Zillman (eds.), Kyoto : from principles to practice, 2001, p.3-23 ; R.Wolfrum et J. Freidrich, The Framework convention on climate change and the Kyoto protocol , in U. Beyerlin,P.-T. Stoll & R. Wolfrum (eds.), Ensuring compliance with multilateral environmental agreements : a dialogue between practitioners and academia, 2006, p.53-68 ; J.-M. Arbour et S. Lavallée, Droit international del’environnement, 2006, Ch.5, les changements climatiques , p.229-277 ; A. M. Chancosa, L’utilisation d’instrumentséconomiques dans la gestion internationale du changement climatique global , in M. Bothe et P. H.Sand (dir.), La politique de l’environnement : de la réglementation aux instruments économiques, 2003, p.499-528。至于悲观地认为京都议定书无法解决气候变化问题者,参见Th. Heeler, Climate change: designing an effective response , in E. Zedillo (ed.), Global warming: looking beyond Kyoto, 2008, p.115-144。
Supra note 4, p.16-17.
L. B. de Chazournes, Le r le des Organes de Règlement des Différends de l’OMC dans le développement dudroit international de l’environnement : entre le marteau et l’enclume , in S. Maljean-Dubois (dir.), Droit del’OMC et protection de l’environnement, 2003, p. 379-400 ; v. p.379-383.
R. Howse, Adjudicative legitimacy and treaty interpretation in international trade law , in R. Howse, the WTO system: law, politics and legitimacy, 2007, p.211-246; v. p.218 et s.
R. Dworkin, Law’s empire, 2003.
E. Canal-Forgues, Le règlement des différends à l’OMC, 2e édition, 2004, p.108 et s.
29 avril 1996, WT/DS2/AB/R, p.19.
G. Abi-Saab, The Appellate Body and treaty interpretation , in G. Sacerdoti, A. Yanovich and J. Bohanes (ed.), The WTO at ten, 2006. p. 453-464; v. p.461-462.
R. Howse, supra note 13, p.231.
D. MacRae, Treaty Interpretation and the Development of International Trade Law by the WTO Appellate Body , in G. Sacerdoti, A. Yanovich and J. Bohanes (ed.), The WTO at ten, 2006. p.360-371, v. p.364; M.Lennard, Navigating by the stars: interpreting the WTO agreements , 5 Journal of International Economic Law 17, 22-27 (2002).
Supra note 16, p.20.
Ibid., p.25.
E. Canal-Forgues, supra note 15, p.104.
G. Abi-Saab, supra note 17, p.462.
4 octobre 1996, WT/DS8, 10, 11/AB/R, p.14.
Supra note 3, paras. 127-130.
Ibid., para. 130, note 109. V. Namibie (Conséquences juridiques) avis consultatif (1971) Recueil de la C.I.J.,page 31.
M. Lennard, supra note 19, p.28; L. B. de Chazournes, supra note 12, p.388; R. Howse, The use and abuse of international law in WTO trade/environment litigation , in M. E. Janow, V. Donaldson & A. Yanovich(eds.), The WTO: governance, dispute settlement, and developing countries, 2008, p.635-670, v. p.645.
V. R. Howse, supra note 27, p.646.
Supra note 16, p.19.
E. Canal-Forgues, supra note 15, p.107-108.
R. Howse, supra note 27, p.644.
Supra note 3, para. 130, note 109.
R. Howse, supra note 27, p.645.
巴基斯坦之立场,Doc. WT/DSB/M/50, p.6.
印度之立场,ibid., p.11.
M. Lennard, supra note 19, p.75.
Eric Canal-Forgues, supra note 15, p.110.
A. Goyal, The WTO and International Environmental Law, 2006, p.368-371.
Ibid., p.362.
Ibid., p.361.
Supra note 10, para. 7.71.
V. J. Pauwelyn, Conflict of Norms in Public International Law: How WTO Law Relates to other Rules of International Law, 2003, p.257 et s.34 D. Palmeter and P. C. Mavroidis, The WTO Legal System: Sources of Law , 92 American Journal of international law 441 (1998).
G. Marceau, A Call for Coherence in International Law: Praises for the Prohibition against ''Clinical Isolation'' in WTO Dispute Settlement , 33 (5) Journal of World Trade 125 (1999).
M. Lennard, supra note 19, p.36.
Supra note 10, para. 7.75.
R. Howse, supra note 27, p.652 et s.
Ibid., p.656.
Ibid., p.657.
R. Howse, supra note 13, p.238 et s.
Supra note 24, p.16-17.
16 janvier 1998, WT/DS 26 & 48/AB/R, para. 123.
Supra note 10, para. 7.89.
E. Canal-Forgues, supra note 15, p.120-121.
M. Doelle, Climate change and the WTO: Opportunities to motivate state action on climate change through the World Trade Organization , 13 (1) RECIEL 85, 93 (2004).
12 mars 2001, WT/DS135/AB/R, para.101.
M. Doelle, supra note 55, p.94.
Ibid. p,94.
Ibid.,p.95.
W. B. Chambers, International Trade Law and the Kyoto Protocol: Potential Incompatibilities , in W. B. Chambers (ed.), Inter-linkages: The Kyoto Protocol and the international trade and investment regimes, 2001,p.87 -118, v. p.103 -105; R. G. Tarasofsky, Heating up international trade law: challenges and opportunities posed by efforts to combat climate change , 2 (1) Carbon & climate law review 7, 13-14 (2008); Ch. Voigt, WTO law and international emissions trading: is there potential for conflict , 2 (1) Carbon & climate law review 54, 55 (2008).
M. Doelle, supra note 55, p.100 ; G. P. Sampson, WTO Rules and Climate Change: The Need for Policy Coherence , in W. B. Chambers (ed.), Inter-linkages: The Kyoto Protocol and the international trade and investment regimes, 2001, p.69-85, v. p.80.
L. G. T. Wolf, Countervailing a Hidden Subsidy: The U.S. Failure to Require Greenhouse Gas Emission Reductions, 19 Georgia international environmental law review 97 (2006).
Ibid., p.103.
C. O. Verrill, Jr., Maximum Carbon Intensity Limitations and the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade ,2(1) Carbon & climate law review 43, 47 (2008).
O. S. Stokke, Trade measures, WTO and climate compliance: the interplay of international regimes , in O. S.Stokke, J. Hori & G. Ulfstein (eds.), Implementing the climate change—international compliance, 2005, p.147-165, v. p.152.
G. P. Sampson, supra note 61, p.79; Meinhard Doelle, supra note 55, p.89.
W. B. Chambers, supra note 60, p.97.
S. Maljean-Dubois (dir.), Droit de l’Organisation Mondiale du Commerce et protection de l’environnement,2003, p.32, p.46.
Supra note 3, paras. 156-158
12 novembre 1996, WT/CTE/1, para. 25.
Ibid, para.178.