最后,《1964年民权法》的实施也立刻对女性就业权的实现产生了重要的影响,女性就业率明显上升。有统计数据显示,在整个劳动力中,女性工作者的比例增长非常明显,这个比例在1920年是20%,到1970年增长到38%。[46]工作和寻找工作的成年女性的比例也同样增长迅速,根据1970年的统计数据,这个比例在1920年是25%,到1950年上升到34%,1960年是37%,1970年是43%。[47]结婚女性也成为劳动力的重要构成部分,截至1969年3月,劳动力增长了180万人,其中新增结婚女性达到775000人,而新增结婚男性是400000人。双职工家庭日益成为美国社会的普遍现象,它的比例从1960年的43%上升到了1969年的52%。[48]
从以上情况可以看到,美国《1964年民权法》实施后很快就在女性就业权的平等保护方面发挥重要作用,正如美国学者所言,“事实证明在1964年以后,禁止就业中的性别歧视的规定绝不是像一些人所期待的那样是一只没牙的虎”。[49]
【作者简介】
郭延军,上海交通大学副教授,法学博士。
【注释】本文系 2010 年教育部人文社会科学研究规划基金项目“女性就业权的平等保护”( 项目号 10YJA820028) 的阶段性研究成果。
参见《经济衰退: 美国女性职工人数或首次超过男性》,资料来源: http: / /news. yorkbbs. ca/sankei/2009 - 02/292380. html,访问日期为 2011年2月25 日。
[美]保罗·布莱斯特等编著: 《
宪法决策的过程: 案例与材料》,张千帆等译,中国政法大学出版社 2002 年版,第122页。
Bradwell v. State of Illinois,83 U. S. 130 (1873)
The Slaughterhouse Cases ,83 U. S. 36 (1873)
Bradwell v. State of Illinois,83 U. S. 130,141 (1873)
[英]J. D. 波尔: 《美国平等的历程》,张聚国译,商务印书馆 2007 年版,第347页。
Konigsberg v. State Bar,353 U. S. 252 ( 1957) .
Schware v. Board Of Bar Examiners ,353 U. S. 232 (1957)
[英]J. D. 波尔: 《美国平等的历程》,张聚国译,商务印书馆 2007 年版,第347页。
Judith A. Baer,The Chains of Protection—The Judicial Response to Women’s Labor Legislation,Greenwood Press,1978,p. 32.
Lochner v. New York,198 U. S. 45 (1905)
Muller v. State of Oregon,208 U. S. 412 (1908)
[美]凯斯·R·桑斯坦: 《偏颇的
宪法》,宋华琳、毕竞悦译,北京大学出版社 2005 年版,第73页。
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Albie Sachs & Joan Hoff Wilson,Sexism and the Law: A Study of Male Beliefs and Legal Bias in Britain and the United States,The Free Press,New York,1979,p. 115.
Barbara Allen Babcock,Ann E. Freedman,Eleanor Holmes Norton & Susan C. Ross,Sex Discrimination and the Law: Causes and Remedies,Little,Brown and Company,Boston,1975 p25.
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Adkins v. Children's Hospital,261 U. S. 525 (1923) .
West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish,300 U. S. 379 (1937)
West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish ,300 U. S. 379,391 (1937) .
West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish ,300 U. S. 379,393 (1937) .
West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish ,300 U. S. 379,394 (1937) .
Goesaert v. Cleary ,335 U. S. 464 (1937) .
Goesaert v. Cleary ,335 U. S. 464,466 (1937) .
Goesaert v. Cleary ,335 U. S. 464,466 (1937) .
Goesaert v. Cleary ,335 U. S. 464,466 (1937) .
Barbara Allen Babcock,Ann E. Freedman,Eleanor Holmes Norton & Susan C. Ross,Sex Discrimination and theLaw: Causes and Remedies,Little,Brown and Company,Boston,1975,p. 129.
[美]盖尔·柯林斯: 《美国女人: 玩偶 苦力 内助 英雄》,暴永宁等译,东方出版社 2006 年版,第 543 页。
110 Cong. Rec. 2720 (l964)
110 Cong. Rec. 2577 (l964)
Jo. Freeman,How“Sex”Got Into Title VII: Persistent Opportunism as a Maker of Public Policy,资料来源: http: / /www. jofreeman. com/lawandpolicy/titlevii. htm,访问日期为 2011 年 6 月 20 日。
[美]德博拉·G·费尔德: 《女人的一个世纪———从选举权到避孕药》,姚燕瑾、徐欣译,新星出版社 2006年版,第239页。
Michael Evan Gold,A Tale of Two Amendments: The Reasons Congress Added Sex to Title VII and Their Implication for the Issue of Comparable Worth. 资 料 来 源: http: //digitalcommons. ilr. cornell. edu/cgi/viewcontent. cgi? article =1010&context = cbpubs,访问日期为 2011 年 6 月 20 日。
110 Cong. Rec. 2581 (l964)
Terry H. Anderson,The Pursuit of Fairness: A History of Affirmative Action,Oxford University Press,Inc. ,2004,p.81.
See Terry H. Anderson,The Pursuit of Fairness: A History of Affirmative Action,Oxford University Press,Inc. ,2004,pp. 81 - 82.
Leo Kanowitz,Women and the Law: The Unfinished Revolution,University of New Mexico Press Albuquerque,1969,p. 279,Note 35.
Blumrosen,The Individual Right to Eliminate Employment Discrimination By Litigation,in 19 PROC. INDUS. RESEARCH Ass’N 1 ( 1967) .
Leo Kanowitz,Women and the Law: The Unfinished Revolution,University of New Mexico Press Albuquerque,1969,p. 281,Note 46.
See Now Legal Defense and Education Fund and Dr. Renée Cherow - O’Leary,The State - By - State Guide to Women’s Legal Rights,McGraw - Hill Book Company,1987.
29 CFR § 1604. 2 (b) (1969)
Rosenfeld v. Southern Pacific Company,444 F. 2d 1219 ( 9th Cir. 1971) .
See Arthur Larson & Lex. K. Larson,November 1980 Cumulative Supplement: Employment Discrimination Vol. 1,Sex,Mathew Bender & Company,New York,1980,Chapter V,pp. 5 - 7.
See Now Legal Defense and Education Fund and Dr. Renée Cherow - O’Leary,The State - By - State Guide to Women’s Legal Rights,McGraw - Hill Book Company,1987.
U.S. Dep’t of Labor,Women’s Bureau,Women Workers Today 1 (1970) . 转引自 Arthur Larson & Lex. K. Larson,November 1980 Cumulative Supplement: Employment Discrimination 1 Sex,Mathew Bender & Company,New York,1980,pp.1 - 8。
N.Y Times,Apr. 11,1971,at 1,Col. 3. ,转引自 Arthur Larson & Lex. K. Larson,November 1980 Cumulative Supplement: Employment Discrimination 1 Sex,Mathew Bender & Company,New York,1980,pp. 1 - 9。
Waldman,Marital and Family Characteristics of the U. S. Labor Force,93 Monthly Labor Rev. No. 5,p. 18 ( May 1970) ,reprinted in 1970 Hearings 977,978. 转引自 Arthur Larson & Lex. K. Larson,November 1980 Cumulative Supplement: Employment Discrimination 1 Sex,Mathew Bender & Company,New York,1980,pp. 1 - 9。
Leo Kanowitz,Women and the Law: The Unfinished Revolution,University of New Mexico Press Albuquerque ,1969,p.106.