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集权或分权?地方自治的成本利益分析

  

  在1991年的判例中[42],美国联邦最高法院的奥康娜法官列举了联邦制的各种长处,姑且作为地方自治的优越性之总结:


  

  联邦主义的联合主权结构(joint sovereigns)为人民保留了众多优越性。它保证了一个权力下放的政府,使之对一个多元社会的不同需求更为敏感;它为公民参与民主过程提供了更多机会,并允许对政府进行更多的创新和试验;它通过各州为了流动的公民而相互竞争,使政府更负责任。联邦体制的主要好处或许在于制约政府权力的滥用。……就和联邦政府不同分支的分权和独立之作用是防止权力过度集中在任何一个分支一样,一种健康的各州和联邦政府的权力平衡将同时降低两者滥权和暴政的风险。


  

  在本文准备过程中,中央研究院法律学所汤德宗主任和陈新民教授为笔者提供了诸多支持,尤其是陈教授为本文提供了部分研究资料。另外,三位匿名评审人曾对本文提出诸多改进意见,北京大学法学院宪法与行政法专业研究生田飞龙同学帮助修订格式并整理参考文献。对于以上所有帮助和支持,笔者在此表示衷心感谢。


【作者简介】
张千帆,北大法学院宪法学与行政法学教授。
【注释】George G.Triantis,Foreword:The Allocation of Government Authority,83 Virginia Law Review 1275(1997).
Deborah Jones Merritt,Three Faces of Federalism:Finding a Formula for the Future,47 Vanderbilt Law Review 1563(1994).
Mark Tushnet,Federalism and Liberalism,4 CardozoJournal of International and Comparative Law 329(1996).
事实上,技术变化对于区域多元化的影响往往是出乎意料的。某些新技术可能出人意料地促进全国统一,例如空调的诞生将许多居民和企业带到原先他们不愿意去的地方,鼓励成千上万的美国人从东北和中西部地区迁徙到人烟稀少的地方,并转变了那些地方主要以传统方式为主的政治和社会。新移民带来了新价值、新传统和新的政策偏好,对那些州和地方的政府施加了新的需求,促使地方政府往问题导向的竞争政治转变。某些看上去有助于统一的新技术则反而促进了区域多元化,例如汽车和电视的发明并没有给美国带来统一的偏好、标准和表现形式。电脑可以说是最促进多元化的技术,不计其数的聊天室、博客、数据库和多媒体链接极大满足了用户各种稀奇古怪的爱好。参见Peter H.Schuck,Some Reflections on theFederalism Debate,14 Yale Journal on Regulation 1(1996).
Herbert J.Storing,ed.,The Complete Anti-Federalist(1981);Storing,2 Complete Anti-Federalist at 2.8.13-14
Peter H.Schuck,Some Reflections on the Federalism Debate,14 Yale Journal on Regulation 1(1996).
Friedrich A.Hayek,The Economic Conditions of Interstate Federalism,in Individualism and Economic Order(1948),pp.255,268-269.
Sunita Parikh and Barry R.Weingast,A ComparativeTheory of Federalism:India,83 Virginia Law Review Association1593(1997).
对于这类财政联邦主义论点的经典阐述,参见CharlesM.Tiebout,A Pure Theory of Local Expenditures,64 Journal ofPolitical Economy 416(1956).
Albert Bret on,Competitive Governments:An EconomicTheory of Politics and Public Finance(1996),pp.196-227.
假定联邦制的地方政府主要负责区域经济,联邦政府则保证人和物的自由流动,且由于收入分享有限,不同层次的政府面临有效的预算约束。Gabriella Montinola,Yingyi Qian&Barry R.Weingast,Federalism,Chinese Style:The Political Basis for Economic Success in China,48 World Politics 50(1995),at 55.
但是也有的学者认为地方自治可能加剧地方腐败,参见Jonathan Rodden and Susan Rose-Ackerman,Does Federalism Preserve Markets?,83 Virginia Law Review 1521(1997)。有的学者认为这些假设还不足以保证联邦制就一定倾向于市场竞争,尤其是它们没有充分注意政治制度的重要性。事实上,像南非这样快速朝向分散化发展的国家反而可能会长期阻碍经济发展。
Janice C.Simpson,A Shallow Labor Pool Spurs Businesses to Act to Bolster Education,Wall Street Journal,at 1,col.1(Sept.28,1987).
New State Ice Co.v.Liebmann,285 U.S.262.
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission v.Mississippi,456 U.S.742(1982).
Deborah Jones Merritt,Three Faces of Federalism:Finding a Formula for the Future,47 Vanderbilt Law Review 1563(1994),pp.1566-1577.
张千帆:《宪法变通与地方试验》,〔北京〕《法学研究》2007年第1期,第63-73页。
Michael W.McConnell,Federalism:Evaluating theFounders''Design,54 University of Chicago Law Review 1484(1987),Book Review of Federalism:The Founders''Design.Raoul Berger,University of Oklahoma Press,1987.
Cass Sunstein,Federalism in South Africa?Notes from American Experience,8 American University Journal of International Law&Policy 421.
Deborah Jones Merritt,Three Faces of Federalism:Finding a Formula for the Future,47 Vanderbilt Law Review 1563(1994).
5 Complete Anti-Federalist at 5.14.6.
Sunita Parikh and Barry R.Weingast,A Comparative Theory of Federalism:India,83 Virginia Law Review Association 1593(1997).
参见Mark Tushnet,Federalism and Liberalism,4 Cardozo Journal of International and Comparative Law 329(1996).
W.Riker,Federalism,in R.E.Goodin and P.Pettit,A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy,Oxford:Basil Blackwell(1993),p.513.
例如加拿大和比利时的例子,参见Norman Dorsen,Michel Rosenfeld,András Sajó,and Susanne Baer(eds.),Comparative Constitutionalism:Cases and Materials,St.Paul,MN:West(2003),pp.375-385.
参见S.D.Muni,Ethnic Conflict,Federalism and Democ-racy in India,in Kumar Rupesinghe and Valery A.Tishkov(eds.),Ethnicity and Power in the Contemporary World( 1996),Ch.10,www.unu.edu/unupress/unubooks/uu12ee/uu12ee00.htm;Katherine Swinton,Federalism under Fire:The Role of the Supreme Court of Canada,55 Law and Contemporary Problems 121(1992).
Akhil Reed Amar,Five Views of Federalism:“Converse-1983”in Context,47 Vanderbilt Law Review 1229(1994).
Deborah Jones Merritt,Three Faces of Federalism:Finding a Formula for the Future,47 Vanderbilt Law Review 1563(1994).
Cass Sunstein,Federalism in South Africa?Notes from American Experience,8 American University Journal of International Law&Policy 421.
Roe v.Wade,410 U.S.113(1973).
Herbert Wechsler,Political Safefuards of Federalism,The Role of the States in the Composition and Selection of the National Government,54 Columbia Law Review 543.
William J.Brennan,Jr.,State Constitutions and Protection of Individual Rights,90 Harvard Law Review 489(1977).
Richard A.Musgrave,The Theory of Public Finance:A Study in Public Economy,New York:McGraw-Hill(1959),pp.56.
Wallace E.Oates,Fiscal Federalism,New York:Harcourt Brace Jovanovich(1972),pp.35-38.
参见Charles M.Tiebout,A Pure Theory of Local Expenditure,64 Journal of Political Economy 416(1956).
参见Sunita Parikh and Barry R.Weingast,A Comparative Theory of Federalism:India,83 Virginia Law Review Association 1593(1997).
Cass Sunstein,Federalism in South Africa?Notes from American Experience,8 American University Journal of International Law&Policy 421.
Thomas S.Ulen,Economic and Public-choice Forces in Federalism,6 George Mason Law Review 921(1998).
Deborah Jones Merritt,Three Faces of Federalism:Finding a Formula for the Future,47 Vanderbilt Law Review 1563(1994).
参见Keith S.Rosenn,Federalism in the Americas in Comparative Perspective,26 The University of Miami Inter-Ameri-can Law Review 1(1994).
Judith Resnik,Federalism''s Options,14 Yale Journal on Regulation 465(1996).
Gregory v.Ashcroft,501 U.S.452(1991).


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