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多数主义的法院:美国联邦最高法院司法审查的性质

  
  其次,司法审查具有教导多数的作用。即使对于一些有争议的、甚至反多数的判决来说,法院也代表了“一家之言”。对于那些认同司法判决并决意为之奋斗的公民来说,司法判决为他们的事业赋予了一种政治上和道德上的正当性。对于那些对特定问题并无成见并信赖司法的公民来说,法院判决宣示了当代社会的重大价值,代表了一种权威的意见。即使对那些不赞同法院判决的公民,最高法院的判决也是一种不能不注意的声音,一种需要去认真辩驳和反思的立场。虽然在短期内法院判决引导和塑造公众态度的作用相当有限,但在长远意义上,它仍然扮演了一种不可忽视的角色。在此意义上,最高法院获得了“共和主义的导师”的赞誉。[189]

  
  第三,司法审查具有塑造多数的作用。如果说司法审查直接改变民众对相关问题态度的作用有限,那么,司法审查的过程在更广泛的领域内设定、澄清和聚焦政治议题,促进一个民主社会的对话。与行政和立法部门相比,最高法院受理案件是相对被动的;但最高法院仍然可以选择性地受理上诉,甚至通过各种信号传达它的倾向,从而引发更多诉讼,并最终决定自己的日程。[190] 不仅如此,最高法院通过对案件的受理和审判,也为整个社会设定了政治议题。法院受理以后,公众的视线迅速被吸引到相关的法律争议上,相关利益集团为了获得理想的结果纷纷采取行动。在法院判决后,各方又开始新一轮的角逐,包括争取通过立法落实、限缩乃至推翻法院的判决。在这持续不断的过程中,美国社会开展了更多的思考和对话,多数意见被不断地塑造和重新塑造。[191]

  
  总而言之,司法审查并不是存在于民主体制之外的真空,而是镶嵌在民主体制之中;它不是民主过程的异物,而本身就是民主过程的一部分。它的意义不完全在于它对某个问题一锤定音的结论,也在于它作为一个民主论坛,参与和增进民主社会所需要的持续对话。

  
  (三)人民意志的多头表达

  
  说法院参与民主过程、代表审慎的民意,并不是说法院是人民意志的唯一代言人。在美国,没有一个机构能够当然地代表人民,也没有一个机构可以宣称代表人民而不受质疑。总统和国会不是人民意志的全权代表,法院也不是。历史地看,美国的制宪者并没有给予国会代表人民的至上权力,国会和总统谁更有资格代表人民也始终存有争议。现实中,如果我们承认人民意志可以用当下的主流民意来测度,任何一个机构(包括民选机构)都会有偏离民意的问题。选举制度不能给民选机构以代表人民的当然权力,就像宪法或者“高级法”不能给法院以代表人民的绝对权力。

  
  美国民主是一个多头表达的体制,即通过不同层次和性质的机构之间的合作对话共同表达人民意志。在联邦层面,有三个部门、四个机构都以自己的方式表达民意:总统(以及他领导下的行政系统),国会参、众两院,最高法院(及其下级法院)。总统4年一选、最多任职8年;参议院由100个各自代表大大小小的人口、6年一选并可以无限连任的参议员组成;众议院由435个分别代表大约70万人口、两年一选并可以无限连任的众议员组成;最高法院由9个经任命产生,法律上终身任职、实际任期平均20年左右的法官组成。

  
  在本文讨论的主题下,这种安排具有两个方面的意义。第一,不同机构的成员交错任期,把不同时期的公众意见逐步地、分别地传输到决策过程。这在公众意见和政治决策过程中制造了一个缓冲,避免一次性大换班所可能带来的剧烈震荡。第二,不同机构的成员产生方式、任职期限、组成人数和决策机制,决定了他们互不相同的行为模式和价值诉求。总统由全国范围间接选举产生,独自对全体选民负责,在他身上聚合了比较广泛的、互相冲突的利益。参、众两院的议员,主要对一个州或者一个地区的选民负责,他们的政治很大程度上是“地方的政治”;由于任期较短,议员们对选民的要求比较敏感,能够及时把选民的意见带到政治过程;然而,由于议员人数众多,议员之间存在策略投票和互惠投票的现象。[192] 相对来说,法官的任职资格和职业保障,保障了法官的超然地位和冷静品质。法官相对偏高的年龄和漫长的任职期间,使他们与多数公众保持距离,成为他们自己这一代人最后的政治守护者。[193] 法官终身任职和刚性待遇等职业保障,使得法官能够从日常的政治纷争中解脱出来,避免受短期利益的干扰和当下公众意见的左右,更关注长期政策性问题的解决。这使法院能够维护当代社会的基本价值,保护特定情境中少数人的权利,甚至不惜在特定案件中拂逆多数公众的意见。

  
  在代表人民利益的问题上,上述机构之间有清晰可鉴的行为模式差别,但没有绝对的效力高下之分。虽然在多数情况下,其它机构会尊重法院的判决,但他们并不盲从法院的判决。当行政、立法和司法这三大部门之间意见一致,他们就有充分的理由来代表人民说话。一个行之有效的宪法解释,在某种意义上必须是立法、行政和司法三个部门“联合解释”的结果;一个重大的政策转变,也必须是三个部门联合行动的结果。法院的作用,就像达尔曾经形象地比拟的,不过是议会委员会一个强有力的主席。[194] 如果三个部门意见冲突,那么他们代表人民的理由可能就不那么信服。如果三个部门之间意见尖锐对立,那么,人民将是最终的裁决者。

  
  法国学者托克维尔在评论美国民主时,出于对暴政的担心,曾建议:“假如把立法机构组织得既能代表多数又一定不受多数的激情所摆布,使行政权拥有自主其事的权利,让司法当局独立于立法权和行政权之外,那就可以建立起一个民主的政府,而又使暴政几乎无机会肆虐。”[195] 他的建议,正是今天我们所看到的美国民主体制的白描。美国民主体制的图景比选举和代议民主理论呈现给我们的要复杂得多。公众意见的多头代表,特别是法院的加盟,更加全面和真切地揭示了美国民主体制的动态图景。

  
  结语

  
  在讨论美国的司法审查时,一些人困惑于司法审查的“反多数难题”,甚至担心或者指责,司法审查是否发展为一种凌驾于其它机构乃至人民之上的超级权力?另一些人则担心,司法审查是否会过于顺从多数意志,从而丧失捍卫法治、保护人权的功能?还有人从规范层面追问,法院是否可以以及在哪些情况下应当遵循多数的意志?第一个问题是美国式的,第二个问题主要来自中国读者,第三个问题为两个国家的学者所共同追寻。

  
  有关“反多数难题”的讨论反应了当代美国社会对司法审查合法性的焦虑。但是,这一说法建立在某种既定政治理论前提之上,漠视和歪曲了司法审查的现实图景。联邦最高法院多数判决得到多数民众意见的支持,并且随着社会变迁和公众态度的转变而不断调整自己的立场,从而在长时段上与公众意见基本保持一致。法官至少在某些情形下关注和考虑公众意见的自觉意识、与其它机构和民众竞争宪法解释权的压力、以及法官任命体制等外在制衡,共同保障了这个“多数主义”的性质。司法审查不是民主体制的异物,而是民主体制的一部分:联邦最高法院作为政治机构,以一种动态的方式来回应民意,并通过与其它机构的对话共同表达民意、塑造宪法。说法院是“最不危险的部门”,不仅仅是因为它既无剑又无钱,也不全是出于殿堂之上那“九个老人”的自律,而是因为它受到民主体制的制约,它的裁判权不会沦为自我复制而权力无边的“黑袍专制”。

  
  论证司法审查的民主合法性,不是否定法治、人权与民主之间的张力,更不丝毫意味着美国民主体制完美无缺。然而,谈及司法审查的多数主义性质是否会导致它丧失捍卫法治、保护人权的功能,有几点是值得注意的。第一,联邦最高法院审理的案件具有很强的政策性,影响法院判决的公众意见主要也是针对普遍的政策问题提出。例如,他们会主张,对某类群体是否可以适用死刑,而不是某某人该不该杀。在此情况下,法院考虑民意并不违反法治。第二,美国联邦法院的独立性和权威性是自不待言的。虽然司法审查具有多数主义倾向,但法院不是只会追随公众意见,随波逐流,相反,它在很多案件中逆流而动,在公众意见面前顽强地保持了独立性。法院是主流政治的联盟,但不是主流的代理人,更不是民意的计算器。第三,即使考虑民意,司法审查也不是民意的简单复写,而更多、更主要的是借助独立判断和理性论证。下级法院没有最高法院那么强的政治性,更是主要遵循先例判决。

  
  对司法审查的讨论始终不离规范层面的设问,例如,法院裁判个案应当以什么为依据?司法审查的边界应当伸展到哪里?规范层面的探讨无疑是有益的,也是不可替代的,却不是本文的目的。本文的目的在于阐明司法审查运作的政治框架,以及它在现实中扮演的角色。但本文的研究也从经验层面揭示司法审查合法性的来源,并且暗示了司法权的边界。多数公众对最高法院司法判决本身以及对最高法院这一机构的认同,维系了司法审查的合法性。过分背离公众意见将会激起强烈的反弹,干涉意见高度分化的事务同样会危及自身的合法性。从根本上讲,政治社会的共识起到支持和限定司法审查的作用。透过这一视角,我们可以理解美国司法审查深厚的力量源泉,以及它所面临的困境。

  
  本文不是讨论中国问题。文章的观察结论能够在多大程度为中国所借鉴,需要读者辨别。在此我只想提醒一点:对于正在进行政治改革的国家来说,司法审查可能没有一些人想象的那样美好,也没有另一些人想象的那样危险。归根到底,它只是我们设计人统治人的社会时,一个值得珍重的经验、一个可能选择的方案。

  
  A Majoritarian Court:

  
  The Nature of Judicial Review of the U.S. Supreme Court

【作者简介】
何海波,法学博士,清华大学法学院副教授。
本文的主要部分是在耶鲁大学法学院中国法中心访问期间写成。写作过程中,耶鲁大学法学院Robert Post 和Reva Siegel教授联合主持的democratic constitutionalism课程,给了我很多启发。初稿完成后,曾先后在清华大学法学院、北京大学法学院、浙江大学法学院和北京航空航天大学法学院做过讨论。感谢劳东燕教授、邓峰教授、林来梵教授、高全喜教授提供的讨论机会,以及赵晓力、聂鑫、李小武、甘超英、陈端洪、沈岿、翟小波、彭冰、蔡乐渭、刘毅、李启成、叶向阳、黄卉、张翔、汪庆华、王建勋、杜强强、杨利敏、聂智琪、泮伟江、王锴、林彦等师友的批评意见。

【注释】 Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. (1 Cranch) 137 (1803), at 176.
Justice Hughes, Address of Charles Evans Hughes, 1906-1916 (2nd), G.P. Putnam''s Sons, 1916, p.185.
Brown v. Allen, 344 U.S. 443 (1953), at 540 (per J. Jackson, concurring). 杰克逊法官与其说是宣扬司法的最高权威,不如说是提醒最高法院并非绝对正确。他的原文是 “eversal by a higher court is not proof that justice is thereby better done. There is no doubt that if there were a super-Supreme Court, a substantial proportion of our reversals of state courts would also be reversed. We are not final because we are infallible, but we are infallible only because we are final.”
Alexander Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch: The Supreme Court at the Bar of Politics, Yale University Press, 1962, pp.16-28. “othing can alter the essential reality that judicial review is a deviant institution in the American democracy.” ibid, at 18.
William Gangi, Saving the Constitution from the Courts, University of Oklahoma Press, 1995.
Mark Tushnet, Taking the Constitution Away from the Courts, Princeton University Press, 1999.
强世功《司法审查的迷雾:马伯里诉麦迪逊案的政治哲学意涵》,《环球法律评论》2004年冬季刊。
除了后面提到的文章,还有钱锦宇《也说美国宪政的“反多数难题”》 ,《博览群书》2006年第8期;田雷《当司法审查遭遇“反多数难题”》,《博览群书》2007年第2期;田雷《认真对待反多数“难题”》,《博览群书》2007年第4期;任东来《试论美国最高法院与司法审查》,《美国研究》2007年第2期。
任东来《“反多数难题”不是一个难题》,《博览群书》2007年第4期。
范进学《美国宪法解释:“麦迪逊两难”之消解》,《法律科学》2006年第6期。
周永坤《违宪审查的民主正当性问题》,《法制与社会发展》2007年第4期。
Mark Graber, Constitutional Politics and Constitutional Theory: A Misunderstood and Neglected Relationship, 27 Law and Social Inquiry 309 (2002).
Alexander Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch: The Supreme Court at the Bar of Politics, Yale University Press, 1962, p.16.
ibid, pp.16-28.
Bruce Ackerman, The Storrs Lectures: Discovering the Constitution, 93 Yale Law Journal 1013 (1984), at 1016.
Barry Friedman, The History of the Countermajoritarian Difficulty (part I): The Road to Judicial Supremacy, 73 New York University Law Review 333 (1998).
较早时期的讨论,参见Charles Haines, The American Doctrine of Judicial Supremacy, Macmillan, 1914; Morris Ernst, The Ultimate Power, Doubleday, Doran & Company, Inc., 1937.
Cooper v. Aaron, 358 U.S. 1 (1958), at 18-19.
Dred Scott v. Sandford, 60 U.S. 393 (1857).
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).
Lochner v. New York, 198 U.S. 45 (1905).
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).
Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973). 中文介绍可参见方流芳《罗伊判例:关于司法和政治分界的争辩》,《比较法杂志》1998年第1期;任东来《司法权力的限度:以美国最高法院与妇女堕胎权争议为中心》,《南京大学学报(哲学·人文科学·社会科学版) 》2007年第2期。
Frank Michelman, Law’s Republic, 97 Yale Law Journal 1493 (1988).
Herbert Wechsler, Toward Neutral Principles of Constitutional Law, 73 Harvard Law Review 1 (1959-1960).
Alexander Bickel, The Supreme Court and the Idea of Progress, Harper & Row, 1970.
J. Skelly Wright, Professor Bickel, the Scholarly Tradition, and the Supreme Court, 84 Harvard Law Review 769 (1971); Barry Friedman, Neutral Principles: A Retrospective, 50 Vanderbilt Law Review 503 (1997).
基思·惠廷顿《宪法解释:文本含义、原初意图与司法审查》,杜强强等译,中国人民大学出版社2006年。中国学者关于美国宪法解释中原旨主义的讨论,参见赵晓力《美国宪法的原旨解释》,载赵晓力编《宪法与公民》, 上海世纪出版集团、上海人民出版社2004年;张翔《美国宪法解释理论中的原旨主义》,《山东社会科学》2005年第7期。
Robert Post & Reva Siegel, Originalism as a Political Practice: The Right''s Living Constitution, 5 Fordham Law Review 545 (2006-2007).
Edwin Meese III, Address before American Bar Association (July 9, 1985), in The Federalist Society, The Great Debate: Interpreting Our Written Constitution (1986), p.9.
Robert Bork, The Tempting of America: The Political Seduction of the Law, Free Press, 1990.
斯卡利法官的观点以及相关评述,参见Antonin Scalia, Originalism: The Lesser Evil, 57 University of Cincinnati Law Review 849 (1989); Amy Gutmann (ed.), A Matter of Interpretation: Federal Courts and the Law, Princeton University Press, 1997.
Bernard Schwartz, The New Right and the Constitution: Turning Back the Legal Clock, Northeastern University Press, 1990, chap.1.
Cass Sunstein, Radicals in Robes: Why Extreme Right-Wing Courts Are Wrong for America, Basic Books, 2005, esp. chap.2, “History’s Dead Hand”.
德沃金《法律帝国》,李常青译,中国大百科全书出版社1996年;Amy Gutmann (ed.), A Matter of Interpretation: Federal Courts and the Law, Princeton University Press, 1997, pp.115-127.
Christopher Eisgruber, The Living Hand of the Past: History and Constitutional Justice, 65 Fordham Law Review 1611 (1996-1997).
Daniel Farber & Suzanna Sherry, Desperately Seeking Certainty: The Misguided Quest for Constitutional Foundations, University of Chicago Press, 2002.
United States v. Carolene Products Co., 304 U.S. 144 (1938), footnote 4. 斯通法官认为,对于宪法明文禁止的立法,阻碍政治过程的立法(例如限制选举权的行使、限制信息传播、限制结社和禁止集会),以及歧视宗教、民族和种族等少数群体的立法,法院应当进行严格审查;而对于该案涉及的经济管制立法,法院应当更多尊重,不应用自己观点代替立法机关的判断。
John Ely, Democracy and Distrust: A Theory of Judicial Review, Harvard University Press, 1980.
Jesse Choper, Judicial Review and the National Political Process: A Functional Reconsideration of the Role of the Supreme Court, University of Chicago Press, 1980.
Mark Tushnet, Taking the Constitution Away from the Courts, Princeton University Press, 1999.
美国总统选举历史上,当选总统未获得过半数普选票有18次,普选票低于对手有4次。国会选举(特别是中期选举)中,投票率经常不足35%。在州和地方选举中,投票率就更低了。
Richard Fenno, Home Style: House Members in Their Districts, Little, Brown & Co., 1978 (议员的行为受竞选资金来源等影响,并不以多数利益为宗旨)。
Thomas Marshall, Public Opinion and the Supreme Court, Unwin Hyman, 1989, p.83, 85. 其它对公众意见与公共政策一致性的实证研究,参见Benjamin Page & Robert Shapiro, Effects of Public Opinion on Policy, 77 American Political Science Review 175 (1983); Alan Monroe, Public Opinion and Public Policy, 1980-1993, 62 Public Opinion Quarterly 6 (1998); Thomas Marshall, Public Opinion and the Rehnquist Court, State University of New York Press, 2008, p.41, 42 (在伦奎斯特法院审理的案件中,联邦法律和州及地方法律与全国范围多数民众意见相一致的,分别为73%和70%).
Robert Dahl, Decision-Making in a Democracy: The Supreme Court as a National Policy-Maker, 6 Journal of Public Law (now the Emory Law Review) 279 (1957).
Jonathan Casper, The Politics of Civil Liberties, Harper & Row, 1972; Jonathan Casper, The Supreme Court and National Policy Making, 70 American Political Science Review 50 (1976); Robert Weissberg, Public Opinion and Popular Government, Prentice-Hall,1976; David Barnum, The Supreme Court and Public Opinion: Judicial Decision Making in the Post-New Deal Period, 47 Journal of Politics 652 (1985);Thomas Marshall, Public Opinion and the Supreme Court, Unwin Hyman, 1989; Thomas  Marshall, Public Opinion and the Rehnquist Court, State University of New York Press, 2008.
Mark Graber, Constitutional Politics and Constitutional Theory: A Misunderstood and Neglected Relationship, 27 Law and Social Inquiry 309 (2002); Barry Friedman, Mediated Popular Constitutionalism, 101 Michigan Law Review 2596 (2003); Terri Peretti, An Empirical Analysis of Alexander Bickel’s The Least Dangerous Branch, in Kenneth Ward & Cecilia Castillo (ed.), The Judiciary and American Democracy: Alexander Bickel, the Countermajoritarian Difficulty, and Contemporary Constitution Theory, State University of New York Press, 2005.
Seth Kreimer, Exploring the Dark Matter of Judicial Review: A Constitutional Census of the 1990s, 5 William & Mary Bill of Rights Journal 427 (1996-1997); Matthew Adler, Judicial Restraint in the Administrative State: Beyond the Countermajoritarian Difficulty, 145 University of Pennsylvania Law Review 759 (1997).
Chevron U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc., 467 U.S. 837 (1984), at 842-43.
Thomas Keck,The Most Activist Supreme Court in History: The Road to Modern Judicial Conservatism, University of Chicago Press, 2004, pp.40-41. 基础数据参见联邦印刷局网站GPO Access,http://www.gpoaccess.gov/constitution/browse2002.html#06supp
Robert Dahl, Decision-Making in a Democracy: The Supreme Court as a National Policy-Maker, 6 Journal of Public Law 279 (1957). 达尔研究了最高法院否定联邦立法的案例(迄止1950年代),发现法院宣布联邦立法违宪多数是在该法通过4年以后,立法机构原有的多数可能已经瓦解。
David Barnum, The Supreme Court and Public Opinion: Judicial Decision Making in the Post-New Deal Period, 47 Journal of Politics 652 (1985).
Thomas Marshall, Public Opinion and the Supreme Court, Unwin Hyman, 1989, pp.83-85, 97, 192.
William Mishler & Reginald S. Sheehan, The Supreme Court as a Countermajoritarian Institution? The Impact of Public Opinion on Supreme Court Decision, 87 American Political Science Review 87 (1993); Kevin McGuire & James Stimson, The Least Dangerous Branch Revisited: New Evidence on Supreme Court Responsiveness to Public Preferences, 66 Journal of Politics 1018 (2004). 关于国内政策情绪指数,参见James Stimson, Public Opinion in America: Moods, Cycles, and Swings (2nd ed.), Westview Press, 1999.
Walter Murphy, Congress and the Court: A Case Study in American Political Process, University of Chicago Press, 1962; Charles Sheldon, Public Opinion and High Court: Communist Party Cases in Four Constitutional System, 15 Western Political Quarterly 341 (1967).
Lucas Powe, The Warren Court and American Politics, Harvard University Press, 2000. 在宣布教育领域种族隔离违宪的同时,最高法院要求“审慎和迅速地(all deliberate speed)”消除种族隔离,而没有象通常那样给当事人提供即时的救济。ibid, chap.2-3.
Neal Devins, The Majoritarian Rehnquist Court? 67 Law & Contemporary Problems 63 (2004); Thomas Marshall, Public Opinion and the Rehnquist Court, State University of New York Press, 2008, esp. chap.2 (pp.23-50).
对半个多世纪以来若干重大判决与公众意见关系的分析,参见Nathaniel Persily, Jack Citrin & Patrick Egan (eds.), Public Opinion and Constitutional Controversy, Oxford University Press, 2008. 在该书探讨的14个问题中,只有焚烧国旗案、校园祷告案和kelo征地案是明显地反多数。
George H. Gallup, The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion 1935-1971 (1972), pp.1250, 1323-33.
George H. Gallup, The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion 1972-1977 (1978), p.54. Charles Franklin & Liane C. Kosaki, Republican Schoolmaster: The U.S. Supreme Court, Public Opinion and Abortion, 83 American Political Science Review 751 (1989).
Furman v. Georgia, 408 U.S. 238 (1972). 对该判决的解读存有争议。
George H. Gallup, The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion 1935-1971 (1972), p.754; George Gallup, The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion 1986 (1987), p.57.
Lawrence v. Texas, 539 U.S. 558 (2003).
http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/html/prej_prev.html。另参见相关报道,Joan Biskupic, For Gays, Tolerance Translates To Rights, Washington Post, Nov. 5, 1999.
Jeffrey Rosen, The Most Democratic Branch: How the Courts Serve America, Oxford University Press, 2006.
Engle v. Vitale, 370 U.S. 421 (1962).
对这一现象的讨论,参见Kirk Elifson & C. Kirk Hadaway, Prayer in Public School: When Church and State Collide, 49 Public Opinion Quarterly 317 (1985); John Green & James Guth, The Missing Link: Political Activists and Support for School Prayer, 53 Public Opinion Quarterly 41 (1989). 前者讨论了赞同校园祷告的选民构成和他们的意见强烈程度,后者讨论了政治活动家在选民和代表中的过滤作用。
Texas v. Johnson, 491 U.S. 397 (1989); United States v. Eichman, 496 U.S. 310 (1990). 当政府方面请求法院考虑禁止焚烧国旗的全国性共识,法院明确地拒绝了,认为反对焚烧国旗的民众态度的增强并不意味着政府禁止焚烧国旗更有道理。United States v. Eichman, 496 U.S. 310 (1990), at 318.
George Gallup, The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion 1990 (1991), p.66. 严格说来,赞成禁止焚烧国旗的宪法修正案并不等于反对法院的判决。
P.J. O’Rourke, Parliament of Whores: A Lone Humorist Attempt to Explain the Entire U.S. Government, Atlantic Monthly Press, 1991, p.77.
Valerie Hoekstra, The Supreme Court and Opinion Change:An Experimental Study of the Court''s Ability to Change Opinion, 23 American Politics Research 109 (1995); James Stoutenborough, Donald Haider-Markel & Mahalley Allen, Reassessing the Impact of Supreme Court Decisions on Public Opinion: Gay Civil Rights Cases, 59 Political Research Quarterly 419 (2006).
Harmelin v. Michigan, 501 U.S. 957 (1991), at 966. “We have long recognized, of course, that the doctrine of stare decisis is less rigid in its application to constitutional precedents”.
Christopher Banks, The Supreme Court and Precedent: An Analysis of Natural Courts and Reversal Trends, 75 Judicature 262 (1991-1992).
Saul Brenner & Harold Spaeth, Stare Indecisis: The Alteration of Precedent on the Supreme Court, 1946-1992, Cambridge University Press, 1995, p.29.另一份研究表明,在1972-85年期间,被最高法院明确宣布推翻的先例,平均寿命是53年。Robert Wigton, What Does It Take to Overrule? An Analysis of Supreme Court Overrulings and the Doctrine of Stare Decisis, 18 Legal Studies Forum 1 (1994).
Adkins v. Children''s Hospital, 261 U.S. 525 (1923); West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish, 300 U.S. 379 (1937).
Minersville School District v. Gobitis, 310 U.S. 586 (1940); West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette, 319 U.S. 624 (1943). 对其转变原因的分析,参见 Lawrence Sager, The Incorrigible Constitution, 65 New York University Law Review 893 (1990), at 930.
Bowers v. Hardwick, 478 U.S. 186 (1986); Lawrence v. Texas, 539 U.S. 558 (2003).
Penry v. Lynaugh, 492 U.S. 302 (1989); Stanford v. Kentucky, 492 U.S. 361 (1989).
Atkins v. Virginia, 536 U.S. 304 (2002); Roper v. Simmons, 543 U.S. 551 (2005).
Thomas Marshall, Public Opinion and the Supreme Court, Unwin Hyman, 1989, p.181.
James Gibson, Gregory Caldeira & Vanessa Baird,  On the Legitimacy of National High Courts, 92  American Political Science Review 343  (1998).
Joseph Tanenhaus & Walter Murphy, Patterns of Public Support for the Supreme Court: a Panel Study, 43 Journal of Politics 24 (1981); Robert Durr, Andrew Martin & Christina Wolbrecht, Ideological Divergence and Public Support for the Supreme Court,  44  American Journal of Political Science 768  (2000); James Gibson, Gregory Caldeira & Lester Spence, Measuring Attitudes Towards the United States Supreme Court, 47 American Journal of Political Science 354 (2003).
Thomas Marshall, Public Opinion and the Rehnquist Court, State University of New York Press, 2008, pp.125-129.
Jeffrey Jones, Bush, Congress, Supreme Court Near Historical Low Approval (June 16, 2008), http://www.gallup.com/poll/108010/Bush-Congress-Supreme-Court-Near-Historical-Low-Approval.aspx
  Gregory Caldeira & James Gibson, The Etiology of Public Support for the Supreme Court, 36 American Journal of Political Science 635 (1992). 研究指出,最高法院得到民众基本政治价值观的支持,也往往得到“意见领袖”的推动。
David Adamany & Joel Grossman, Support for the Supreme Court as a National Policymaker, 5 Law and Policy Quarterly 405 (1983); James Gibson & Gregory Caldeira, Blacks and the United States Supreme Court: Models of Diffuse Support, 54 Journal of Politics 1120 (1992).
Gregory Caldeira, Neither the Purse Nor the Sword: Dynamics of Public Confidence in the Supreme Court, 80 American Political Science Review 1209 (1986); Anke Grosskopf & Jeffery Mondak, Do Attitudes toward Specific Supreme Court Decisions Matter? The Impact of Webster and Texas v. Johnson on Public Confidence in the Supreme Court, 51 Political Research Quarterly 633 (1998). 后者指出,法院的个别判决确实会影响到公众对法院的整体态度,而当公众不认同法院时,这种负面的影响在短期内尤其显著。
Jeffery Mondak, Institutional Legitimacy, Policy Legitimacy, and the Supreme Court, 20 American Politics Quarterly (American Politics Research) 457 (1992); Jeffrey Mondak, Policy Legitimacy and the Supreme Court: The Sources and Contexts of Legitimation, 47 American Politics Quarterly 675 (1994).
Jeffery Mondak & Shannon Smithey, The Dynamics of Public Support for the Supreme Court, 59 Journal of Politics 1114 (1997).
Herbert Kritzer, The Impact of Bush v. Gore on Public Perceptions and Knowledge of Supreme Court, 85 Judicature 32 (2001-2002); James Gibson, Gregory Caldeira & Lester Spence, The Supreme Court and the U.S. Presidential Election of 2000: Wounds, Self-Inflicted or Otherwise? 33 British Journal of Political Science 535 (2003). Top of Form
Bottom of Form
Mark Graber, Constitutional Politics and Constitutional Theory: A Misunderstood and Neglected Relationship, 27 Law and Social Inquiry 309 (2002).
例如,最高法院在裁决维持一个限制工厂妇女劳动时间的州立法时,多数派宣称,宪法问题“不是由当前公众的普遍态度来决定的”。Muller v. Oregon, 208 U.S. 412 (1908), at 420. 在宣布一个规定妇女最低工资的立法违宪时,法院声称该案法律是否合宪“不能靠数人头”的办法来解决。Adkins v. Children’s Hospital, 261 U.S. 525 (1923), at 560. 在一个要求公立学校学生向国旗致敬的案件中,杰克逊法官声称,“宪法规定的基本权利不能由投票来决定”。West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette, 319 U.S. 624 (1943), at 638. 在一个涉及堕胎权利的案件中,首席法官伦奎斯特声称,“法院的职责要求他们无视公众的意见和批评”。Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania v. Casey, 505 U.S. 833 (1992), at 959.
Benjamin Cardozo, The Nature of the Judicial Process, Yale University Press, 1921, p.168.
Barker v. Carr, 369 U.S. 186 (1962), per Justice Frankfurter. “The Court''s authority - possessed of neither the purse nor the sword - ultimately rests on sustained public confidence in its moral sanction.”
William Rehnquist, Constitutional Law and Public Opinion, 20 Suffolk University Law Review 751 (1986), at 768. 伦奎斯特以他早年担任大法官助理时所经历的一个重大案件(钢铁公司接管案)为例,生动地揭示了强烈的公众舆论对司法审判的影响。在演讲的最后,他意味深长地说:“法官当然不必像民选官员一样在‘在公众意见面前发抖’;但在那个案件中,如果法官不曾听取公众意见,他们恐怕真的要发抖了。” 伦奎斯特不便讲述他自己当大法官时的考虑,也没有正面回答法官是否应当听取公众意见,但他讲的故事无疑是他思想的写照,他的言语似乎透露他至少在某种程度上是认同的。
Richard Davis, Decisions and Images: The Supreme Court and the Press, Prentice Hall, 1994, esp. chap.5 “The Invisible Dance” (pp.102-131).
Thomas  Marshall, Public Opinion and the Rehnquist Court, State University of New York Press, 2008, pp.4-10.
ibid, p.162.
Thomas Marshall, Legitimacy in the Public Eye: Justice Sandra Day O’Connor and Public Opinion, http://www.publicopinionpros.com/features/2005/nov/marshall.asp.
William Mishler & Reginald S. Sheehan, Public Opinion, the Attitudinal Model, and Supreme Court Decision Making: A Micro-Analytic Perspective, 58 Journal of Politics169 (1996).
Roy B. Flemming & B. Dan Wood, The Public and the Supreme Court: Individual Justice Responsiveness to American Policy Moods, 41 American Journal of Political Science 468 (1997).
Micheal W. Giles, Bethany Blackstone & Richard Vining, The Supreme Court in American Democracy:  Unraveling the Linkages between Public Opinion and Judicial Decision Making, 70 Journal of Politics 293 (2008).
Miller v. California, 413 U.S. 15 (1973), at 24.
Planned Parenthood v. Casey, 505 U.S. 833 (1992), at 864-870 (part III C).
关于死刑适当标准演进的讨论,参见Brian Varland, Marking the Progress of a Maturing Society: Reconsidering the Constitutionality of Death Penalty Application in Light of Evolving Standards of Decency, 28 Hamline Law Review 311 (2005).
Wilkerson v. Utah, 99 U.S. 130 (1879); In re Kemmler, 136 U.S. 436 (1890).法院在这两个案件中通过与历史上的酷刑进行比较,分别裁定,用枪决和电刑方式执行死刑不属于宪法禁止的“残酷和非同寻常的刑罚”。
Weems v. United States, 217 U.S. 349 (1910), at 378. 法院在该案中判决,对于伪造公文者处以长达15年的苦役,属于“残酷而非同寻常的刑罚”,因而违宪。
Trop v. Dulles, 356 U. S. 86 (1958), at 100-101.
Enmund v. Florida, 458 U. S. 782 (1982), at 788-796. 法院认为,在一个抢劫、杀人案件中,对于一个不在现场、没有参与也没有预料杀人的从犯判处死刑,有违宪法。
Penry v. Lynaugh, 492 U.S. 302 (1989); Atkins v. Virginia, 536 U.S. 304 (2002). 最高法院在前一个案件中认为,各州的法律(只有少数州禁止)、陪审团的量刑实践(不清楚)以及民意调查结果(多数反对),都还不足以证明禁止对智障者适用死刑已经在全社会形成共识(societal consensus)。在后一个案件中,法院指出,只有少数几个州还允许对智障者适用死刑,而即使在这些州对他们判处死刑实际上也很罕见。因此可以说,反对对智障者适用死刑已经形成了全国范围的共识。
Coker v. Georgia, 433 U.S. 584 (1977), at 593-597.法院也指出,强奸并不剥夺被害人的生命,适用死刑这种严厉的刑罚是罪刑严重不相称的。
Kennedy v. Louisiana (No. 07-343), Decided on June 25, 2008. 法院还阐述了他们自己关于强奸幼女量刑的判断,并宣称该判决同时建立在社会共识和法官的独立判断之上。
Thompson v. Oklahoma, 487 U. S. 815 (1988), at 824-833.
Stanford v. Kentucky, 492 U.S. 361 (1989).
Roper v. Simmons, 543 U.S. 551 (2005). 法院还根据自己的判断,阐述了对未成年人适用死刑是不适当的。法院还指出,对未成年人适用死刑有违国际社会对待这个问题的普遍态度。
Atkins v. Virginia, 536 U.S. 304 (2002), footnote 21.
关于公众意见在法庭上运用的较早讨论,参见Robert Sorensen & Theodore Sorensen, The Admissibility and Use of Opinion Research Evidence, 28 New York University Law Review 1213 (1953); Hans Zeisel, The Uniqueness of Survey Evidence, 45 Cornell Law Quarterly 322 (1960); Susan Becker, Public Opinion Polls and Surveys as Evidence: Suggestion for Resolving Confusing and Conflicting Standards Governing Weight and Admissibility, 70 Oregon Law Review 463 (1991).
法院多数派的做法遭到了伦奎斯特和另外两位法官的从理念到方法的强烈反对,也引起了学界关于公众意见作为证据可接受性和证明价值的讨论。Tracy Robinson, By Popular Demand? The Supreme Court''s Use of Public Opinion Polls in Atkins v. Virginia, 4 George Mason University Civil Rights Law Journal 107 (2004).
对该观点的一个全面阐述,Robert Burt, The Constitution in Conflict, Harvard University Press, 1995.另见Louis Fisher, Constitutional Interpretation by Members of Congress, 63 North Carolina Law Review 707 (1984-1985); Susan Burgess, Contest for Constitutional Authority: The Abortion and War Powers Debates, University Press of Kansas, 1992 (国会对司法权威的挑战并不降低宪法的权威); Michael Paulsen, The Most Dangerous Branch: Executive Power to Say What the Law Is, 83 Georgetown Law Journal 217 (1994-1995).
Larry Kramer, We the Court, 115 Harvard Law Review 4 (2001); Larry Kramer, The People Themselves: Popular Constitutionalism and Judicial Review, Oxford University Press, 2004.
McCulloch v. Maryland, 17 U.S. 316 (1819).
Andrew Jackson, Veto Message Regarding the Bank of the United States (July 10, 1832), http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/veto/ajveto01.htm.
Don Fehrenbacher, The Dred Scott Case: Its Significance in American Law and Politics, Oxford University Press, 2001, pp.417-448.
Abraham Lincoln, First Inaugural Address (March 4, 1861), http://www.nationalcenter.org/LincolnFirstInaugural.html.
David Silver, Lincoln’s Supreme Court, University of Illinois Press, 1956, pp.27-36.
Franklin Roosevelt, Fireside Chat on Reorganization of the Judiciary (March 9, 1937), http://www.hpol.org/fdr/chat/.
Edwin Meese III, The Law of the Constitution, 61 Tulane Law Review 979 (1987). 在遭到批评后,米斯缓和了口气,称司法判决是国家的法律,有普遍的适用力。Edwin Meese III, The Tulane Speech: What I Meant, Washington Post, November 13, 1986.
Dawn Johnsen, Ronald Reagan and the Rehnquist Court on Congressional Power: Presidential Influences on Constitutional Change, 78 Indiana Law Journal 363 (2003). 里根政府的态度在学术界引起了很多争论。Perspective on the Authoritativeness of Supreme Court Decisions, 61 Tulane Law Review 979 (1987); The Role of the Legislative and Executive Branches in Interpreting the Constitution, 73 Cornell Law Review 371 (1988)。
汉密尔顿等《联邦党人文集》,程逢如等译,商务印书馆1995年,78篇。
Declaration of Constitutional Principles (Southern Manifesto), Congressional Record, vol.102, part.4, pp.4460-64 (March 12, 1956), http://www.strom.clemson.edu/strom/manifesto.html.
Texas v. Johnson, 491 U.S. 397 (1989); United States v. Eichman, 496 U.S. 310 (1990).
Employment Division, Department of Human Resources of Oregon v. Smith, 494 U.S. 872 (1990); City of Boerne v. Flores, Archbishop of San Antonio, 521 U.S. 507 (1997).
Larry Alexander & Frederick Schauer, On Extrajudicial Constitutional Interpretation, 110 Harvard Law Review 1359 (1997), at 1365.
Harris v. McRae, 448 U.S. 297 (1980). 国会对罗伊案件的反应,参见Susan Burgess, Contest for Constitutional Authority: The Abortion and War Powers Debates, University Press of Kansas, 1992, esp. chap. 2 (pp.28-64).
Don Fehrenbacher, The Dred Scott Case: Its Significance in American Law and Politics, Oxford University Press, 2001, p.432.
Planned Parenthood v. Casey, 505 U.S. 833 (1992). 最高法院宣布已婚妇女条款违宪,但维持了其它限制。
Kelo v. City of New London, 545 U.S. 469 (2005).
一个详细的分析参见Ilya Somin, The Limits of Backlash: Assessing the Political Response to Kelo, Minnesota Law Review (forthcoming), available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=976298; Edward Lopez, R. Jewell & Noel Campbell, Pass a Law, Any Law, Fast! State Legislative Responses to the Kelo Backlash, Review of Law & Economics, Vol. 5, Iss. 1 (2009), available at http://www.bepress.com/rle/vol5/iss1/art5. 研究也指出,许多州对征收权力的立法限制仅仅是象征性的,只有10余个州的立法限制是实质性的。
Robert Dahl, Decision-Making in a Democracy: The Supreme Court as a National Policy-Maker, 6 Journal of Public Law 279 (1957).
Erik Eriksson, The Supreme Court and the New Deal: A Study of Recent Constitutional Interpretation, Rosemead Review Press, 1940, esp. pp.204-207.
Georg Vanberg, Legislative-Judicial Relations: A Game-Theoretic Approach to Constitutional Review, 45 American Journal of Political Science 346 (2001).
Comment: The Attitude of Lower Courts to Changing Precedents, 50 Yale Law Journal 1448 (1940-1941); Walter Murphy, Lower Court Checks on Supreme Court Power, 58 American Political Science Review 1017 (1959); Bradley Canon & Charles Johnson, Judicial Policies: Impact and Implementation, CQ Press, 1999.
该判决所确立的规则几年后被最高法院所推翻。Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, 438 U.S. 265 (1978); Hopwood v. Texas, 78 F.3d 932 (5th Cir. 1996); Grutter v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 306 (2003).
该判决后来被最高法院推翻。参见和对比Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 (1966); United States v. Dickerson, 166 F.3d 667 (4th Cir. 1999); Dickerson v. United States, 530 U.S. 428 (2000).
Don Fehrenbacher, The Dred Scott Case: Its Significance in American Law and Politics, Oxford University Press, 2001, pp.443-445.
Walter Murphy, Lower Court Checks on Supreme Court Power, 53 American Political Science Review 1017 (1959); J. Peltason, Fifty-eight Lonely Men: Southern Federal Judges and School Desegregation, University of Illinois Press, 1971.
Chad Westerland (et. al.), Lower Court Defiance of (Compliance with) the U.S. Supreme Court, http://www.princeton.edu/~ccameron/Defiance.pdf; Jeffrey Segal, Strategic Defiance of the United States Supreme Court (April, 2006), http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p139325_index.html.
Minersville School District v. Gobitis, 310 U.S. 586 (1940); Barnette v. West Virginia, 47 F. Supp. 251 (1942); West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette, 319 U.S. 624 (1943).
State ex rel. Simmons v. Roper, 112 S. W. 3d 397 (2003) (en banc); Roper v. Simmons, 543 U.S. 551 (2005).
Margaret Kniffin, Overruling Supreme Court Precedents: Anticipatory Action by United States Courts of Appeals, 51 Fordham Law Review 53 (1982-1983); C. Steven Bradford, Following Dead Precedent: The Supreme Court''s Ill-Advised Rejection of Anticipatory Overruling, 59 Fordham Law Review 39 (1990-1991); Roper v. Simmons, 543 U.S. 551 (2005), Justice O''Connor dissenting (part.2A), Justice Scalia (with whom the Chief Justice and Justice Thomas join) dissenting (part 4).
Walter Murphy, Lower Court Checks on Supreme Court Power, 53 American Political Science Review 1017 (1959);
Symposium: The Emergence of State Constitutional Law, 63 Texas Law Review 959 (1984-1985); G. Allan Tarr & Mary Porter, Introduction: State Constitutionalism and State Constitutional Law, 17 Publius: Journal of Federalism 1 (1987).
Paul Kahn, Interpretation and Authority in State Constitutionalism, 106 Harvard Law Review 1147 (1993).
Ethan Bronner, Throngs Rally in D.C. to Keep Abortion Legal, Boston Globe, April 19, 1989. 2004年4月,堕胎权利的支持者再次组织了一个上百万人的集会。March for Women’s Lives: Up to a Million Descend on DC in One of the Largest Protests in U.S. History; Huge Abortion Rights Rally in D.C., CBS, April 26, 2004, http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/02/09/politics/main598867.shtml. 当然,反对者也经常举行类似集会。布什提名保守派法官Samuel Alito 进入最高法院后的一次集会,Michael Janofsky, Abortion Opponents Rally, Saying the End of Roe Is Near, New York Times, January 23, 2006.
Randall Terry, Stop “Gay Marriage”! Impeach the Twisted Six on U.S. Supreme Court (petition opened July 24, 2003), http://www.conservativepetitions.com/. 原文已不存。
Gerald Rosenberg, The Hollow Hope: Can Courts Bring About Social Change?, University of Chicago Press, 1991, pp.82-85.
Engle v. Vitale, 370 U.S. 421 (1962).
Kenneth Dolbeare & Phillip Hammond, The School Prayer Decisions: From Court Policy to Local Practice, University of Chicago Press, 1971.
Gerald Rosenberg, The Hollow Hope: Can Courts Bring About Social Change?, University of Chicago Press, 1991, pp.189-195.
Gerald Rosenberg, The Hollow Hope: Can Courts Bring About Social Change?, University of Chicago Press, 1991.
Gerald Gunther, Congressional Power to Curtail Federal Court Jurisdiction: An Opinionated Guide to the Ongoing Debate, 36 Stanford Law Review 895 (1984).
在美国历史上,通过修宪方式推翻最高法院判例总共有4次。例如,联邦最高法院1895年在Pollock v. Farmers’ Loan and Trust Company案中判决,对利息、股息和租金征收所得税的法律违宪;1913年生效的宪法第16条修正案明确授权国会征收所得税。联邦最高法院1970年在Oregon v. Mitchell案中判决,国会要求各州把选举法定年龄降低到18岁的法律违宪;次年通过的宪法第26条修正案明确规定,合众国和各州不得以年龄为由否认或剥夺18岁以上公民的选举权。修宪程序的严苛,造就了美国联邦最高法院的伟大,也加剧了其判决所面临的合法性质疑。
Morris Ernst, The Ultimate Power, Doubleday, Doran & Company, Inc., 1937, pp.311-326.
宪法原文说的是总统在参议院的“建议和同意”下任命法官,但在实际操作中,参议院的建议权几乎从来没有被认真对待。关于恢复建议权、完善任命程序的讨论,参见Glenn Harlan Reynolds, Taking Advice Seriously: An Immodest Proposal for Reforming the Confirmation Process, 65 Southern California Law Review 1577 (1991-1992)。
Henry Abraham, Justices, Presidents and Senators: A History of the U.S. Supreme Court Appointments from Washington to BushⅡ (5th ed.), Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2008, chap.4. 在相关的法官任命因素中,只有法官的教育背景和职业经验与意识形态的关系比较淡泊。
Lee Epstein & Jeffrey Segal, Advice and Consent: The Politics of Judicial Appointments, Oxford University Press, 2005, chap.5。中国学者的讨论,参见封丽霞《政党与司法:关联与距离——对美国司法独立的另一种解读》,《中外法学》2005第4期。
依照这个程序,被提名者接受参议院司法委员会的询问,其他证人在参议院司法委员会作证,整个过程对公众和媒体开放。被提名的法官所持有的观点,包括立场模糊的意识形态,都可能成为议员和公众关注的对象。Paul Simon, Advice and Consent: Clarence Thomas, Robert Bork and the Intriguing History of Supreme Court’s Nomination Battles, 1992; Mark Silverstein, Judicious Choices: The New Politics of Supreme Court Confirmations, W. W. Norton & Company, 1994.
John Massaro, Supremely Political: The Role of Ideology and Presidential Management in Unsuccessful Supreme Court Nominations, State University of New York Press, 1990; Erwin Chemerinsky, Ideology and the Selection of Federal Judges, 36 U.C. Davis Law Review 619 (2002-2003).
Bruce Murphy, Fortas: The Rise and Ruin of a Supreme Court Justice, W. Morrow, 1988. 方特斯与总统私交过于密切,以及他个人的一些经济问题,也受到质疑。
有关伯克任命的斗争,参见The Bork Nomination: Essays and Reports, 9 Cardozo Law Review (1987); Ethan Bronner, Battle for Justice: How the Bork Nomination Shook America, W. W. Norton & Company, 1989; Paul Simon, Advice and Consent: Clarence Thomas, Robert Bork and the Intriguing History of Supreme Court’s Nomination Battles, National Press Books, 1992, chap.3; Ralph Shaffer, The Bork Hearings: Highlights from the Most Controversial Judicial Confirmation Battle in U.S. History, Markus Wiener Publishers, 2005.
公共利益团体专门整理和统计伯克的学术著作、演讲和司法判决,Public Citizen Litigation Group, The Judicial Record of Judge Robert H. Bork, 1987.
有关公众意见与托马斯法官任命的影响,参见Paul Simon, Advice and Consent: Clarence Thomas, Robert Bork and the Intriguing History of Supreme Court’s Nomination Battles, National Press Books,1992, pp.121-122; Kathleen Frankovic & Joyce Gelb, Public Opinion and the Thomas Nomination, 25 Political Science and Politics 481 (1992) ; L. Overby, Beth Henschen, Michael Walsh & Julie Strauss, Courting Constituents? An Analysis of the Senate Confirmation Vote on Justice Clarence Thomas, 86 American Political Science Review 997 (1992).
Gregory Caldeira & Charles Smith, Campaigning for the Supreme Court: The Dynamics of Public Opinion on the Thomas Nomination, 58 Journal of Politics 655 (1996).
例如,首任总统华盛顿(1789-97)任命了满席法官,杰克逊(1829-37)、林肯(1861-65)、塔夫脱(1909-13)、富兰克林·罗斯福(1933-45)、艾森豪威尔(1953-61)曾经有5个或者更多的任命机会。而富兰克林·罗斯福在第一届任期届满却没有得到一个最高法院法官任命的机会(这也是导致他与法院冲突的部分原因);晚近的卡特(1977-81),终其任期也没有得到一个任命的机会。
关于美国联邦最高法院法官的任命,参见Henry Abraham, Justices, Presidents and Senators: A History of the U.S. Supreme Court Appointments from Washington to BushⅡ (5th ed.), Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2008, esp. Chap. 4.
Bruce Selya, Pulling from the Ranks: Remarks on the Proposed Use of an Objective Judicial Ranking System to Guide the Supreme Court Appointment Process, 32 Florida State University Law Review 1281 (2004-2005).
Bruce A. Ackerman, Transformative Appointments, 101 Harvard Law Review 1164 (1987-1988);
Oliver Holmes, Letter to Harold J. Laski (March 4, 1920), in Mark Howe (ed.), Holmes-Laski Letters: The Correspondence of Mr. Justice Holmes and Harold J. Laski, 1916-1935, vol. 1, Harvard University Press, 1953, p.249. 原话是,“I always say, as you know, that if my fellow citizens want to go to Hell I will help them. It''s my job.”
John Ely, Democracy and Distrust: A Theory of Judicial Review, Harvard University Press, 1980. 中国学者的评论,参见汪庆华《对谁的不信任?走向程序主义的宪政理论》,《中外法学》2004年第5期。
Bruce Ackerman, We the People: Foundations, Harvard University Press, 1991; Bruce Ackerman, We the People: Transformations, Harvard University Press, 1998. 中国学者的评论,参见汪庆华《宪法与人民:布鲁斯·阿克曼的二元主义宪政理论》,《政法论坛》2005年第6期。
约瑟夫·熊彼特《资本主义、社会主义与民主》,吴良健译,商务印书馆2002年,370-378页。
肯尼思·阿罗《社会选择与个人价值》,陈志武、崔之元译,四川人民出版社1987年;詹姆斯·布坎南、戈登·塔洛克《同意的计算:立宪民主的逻辑基础》,陈光金译,中国社会科学出版社2000年;Daniel Farber & Philip Frickey, Law and Public Choice: A Critical Introduction, University of Chicago Press, 1991, pp.22-33.
达尔认为,在多头政体(polyarchy)下,美国既不是多数的统治也不是少数的统治,而是多个联合的少数的统治(minorities rule)。许多政策是不同政治集团冲突、商谈和妥协的结果,没有一个集团能够在绝对意义上代表多数。Robert Dahl, A Preface to Democratic Theory, University of Chicago Press, 1956, p.81, 133. 如果上述观点成立,真正困扰人的与其说是“反多数”的问题,不如说是“非多数(non-majoritarian difficulty)”的问题。Mark Graber, The Non-Majoritarian Difficulty: Legislative Deference to the Judiciary, 7 Studies in American Political Development 35 (1993).
关于审议民主理论,参见谈火生《民主审议与政治合法性》,法律出版社2007年。相关译著可参见陈家刚编《协商民主》,上海三联书店2004年;谈火生编《审议民主》,江苏人民出版社 2007年;以及中央编译出版社的“协商民主译丛”。
Christopher Zurn, Deliberative Democracy and Constitutional Review, 21 Law and Philosophy 467 (2002); Christopher Zurn, Deliberative Democracy and the Institutions of Judicial Review, Cambridge University Press, 2007.
James Stimson, Michael Mackuen & Robert Erikson, Dynamic Representation, 89 American Political Science Review 543 (1995).
Barry Friedman, Mediated Popular Constitutionalism, 101 Michigan Law Review 2596 (2003).
Mark Tushnet, Taking the Constitution Away from the Courts, Princeton University Press, 1999, pp.143-152.
Charles Franklin & Liane Kosaki, Republican Schoolmaster: The US Supreme Court, Public Opinion, and Abortion, 83 American Political Science Review 751 (1989); James Stoutenborough, Donald Haider-Markel & Mahalley Allen, Reassessing the Impact of Supreme Court Decisions on Public Opinion: Gay Civil Rights Cases, 59 Political Research Quarterly 419 (2006); Patrick Egan & Jack Citrin, When the Supreme Court Decides, Does the Public Follow? (July, 2007), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=998597>.
H. W. Perry, Deciding to Decide: Agenda Setting in the United States Supreme Court, Harvard University Press, 1991; Vanessa Baird, Answering the Call of the Court: How Justices and Litigants Set the Supreme Court Agenda, University of Virginia Press, 2007.
Louis Fisher, Constitutional Dialogue: Interpretation as Political Process, Princeton University Press, 1988; Barry Friedman, Dialogue and Judicial Review, 91 Michigan Law Review 577 (1993).
关于美国选举和政治过程,参见L. Maisel & Kara Buckley, Parties and Elections in America: The Electoral Process (4th ed.), Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2005.
Thomas Marshall, Public Opinion and the Rehnquist Court, State University of New York Press, 2008, p.95-99 (随着法官任职时间变长,他们越来越倾向于偏离主流意见).
Robert Dahl, Decision-Making in a Democracy: The Supreme Court as a National Policy-Maker, 6 Journal of Public Law 279 (1957).
托克维尔《论美国的民主》(上),董果良译,商务印书馆1991年,290-291页。


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