【注释】1( 本文初稿曾作为会议论文提交给首届“欧洲公法国际研讨会”(Almagro, 28 June 2002),经修改后发表于2003年12月出版的《欧洲公法》杂志(European Public Law)第九卷第四期。本文的修改得益于与Sabino Cassese和Carol Harlow的讨论,作者吉亚桑托·加纳尼(Giacinto della Cananea)教授对他们以及《欧洲公法》杂志的匿名审稿人深表感谢。 2意大利欧洲大学(European University Institute)哲学博士(Ph. D),现任阿毕诺大学(University of Urbino)政治学院法律系主任,行政法学全职教授。 3武汉大学法学院教授,博士研究生导师。 4武汉大学法学院国际法专业博士研究生。 在此,译者感谢作者以及《欧洲公法》杂志编辑Birkinshaw教授对本文翻译的惠准和支持。此外,译者还要感谢美国斯坦福大学的 J. H. Merryman教授、英国牛津大学的P. Brand教授、意大利特仑托大学(University of Trento)的 D. Quaglioni教授、伯隆纳大学(Bologna University)的 P. Prodi教授以及阿毕诺大学的 M. L. Napolitano博士和M. Gnes 博士,他们为本文的翻译提供了许多颇有价值的资料和建议。 A.M. Hespanha, Panorama historico da cultura juridica europea (1999), 意大利语译本为 Introduzione alla storia del diritto europeo, Bologna, Il Mulino, 1999, p. 4;该书英文译本由作者翻译。关于欧洲大陆法中的共同法(jus commune)和英美法中的普通法(common law)之区别,参见 chapter 5 of J.M. Kelly, A Short History of Western Legal Thought, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1992. M. Ascheri, Istituzioni medievali: una introduzione, Bologna, Il Mulino, 1994; P. Grossi, L’ordine giuridico medieovale, Bari, Laterza, 1995; R.C. van Caenegem, European Law in the Past and the Future, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2001. 作者同前,另参见 Judges, Legislators and Professors. Chapters in European Legal History (1987). J.P. Dawson 已经指出了“法国偏离”(French deviation)的现象,参见The Oracles of the Law, Westport, Greenwood Press, 1985.(法国在资产阶级革命后摒弃了原有的欧洲共同法传统,建立了全新的资产阶级法律体系。这一现象被称为“法国偏离”。孟德斯鸠等法国启蒙思想家关于权力分立的理论是这一“偏离”的思想基础。它不仅催生了新的法律思维方法,而且对于法国的司法组织和司法行政、实体法和程序法都产生了重大影响。参见 J. H. Merryman, ’The French Deviation’, in: Am. J. of Com. L. (44), 1995, p. 109. ——译者注。) 关于这一观念,参见 R. David, Les grands systèmes de droit , Paris, Dalloz, 1985. 关于公法的专门论述,参见 M. Fromont, Grands systèmes de droit étrangers, Paris, Dalloz, 1998, 3th ed. 参见 A. Plantey, Prospective de l’Etat, Paris, Pedone, 1975. 法兰西第一帝国建立以后,为了巩固资产阶级革命的胜利成果,促进资本主义经济的发展,消除以往政局动荡和战争频繁所造成的法律极不统一的现象,拿破仑亲自主持编撰了一系列重要法典。由此,法国建立起了比较完备的近代资产阶级法律体系。“拿破仑模式”就是指这种以《拿破仑法典》(《法国民法典》)为代表,以成文法为表现形式的立法模式。——译者注。 参见 R. Caranta, Judicial Protection Against Member States: A New Jus Commune Takes Shape (1995) 32 CML Rev 703. S. Cassese, Toward a European Model of Public Administration, in: D.S. Clark (ed.), Comparative and Private International Law. Essays in Honor of John Henry Merryman on his Seventienth Birthday, Berlin, Duncker & Humblot, 1990, p. 151; L. Torchia, Developments in Italian Administrative Law through Cross-fertilization, in: J. Beatson and T. Tridimas (eds.), New Directions in European Public Law, Oxford, Hart Publ., 1998, p. 137; S. Kadelbach, Allgemeines Verwaltungsrecht unter europaischem Einfluss, Tubingen, Mohr Siebeck, 1999. O. Mayer, Deutsches Verwaltungsrecht, Berlin, Duncker & Humblot, 1895. A.V. Dicey, Introduction to the study of the Law of the Constitution (1885), London, MacMillan, 1959, 10th ed. 关于与法国法律文化的比较,参见 S. Flogaitis, Administrative law et Droit administratif, Paris, L.G.D.J., 1986. A.M. Sandulli, Il procedimento amministrativo, Milano, Giuffrè, 1940. M.S. Giannini, Atto amministrativo, in Enciclopedia del diritto, IV, Milano, Giuffrè, 1958. S. Cassese, Legislative regulation of adjudicative procedures, in Eur. Rev. of Publ. Law (special number), 1993, p. 15. 另参见 P. Craig, Procedures and Administrative decisionmaking: a common law perspective, ibidem, p. 55; D.J. Galligan, Due Process and Fair Procedures, Oxford, Clarendon, 1997. M.S. Giannini, Profili di un diritto amministrativo delle Comunità europee, mimeo, Rome, 14 April 1967. P. Reuter, Organisations européennes, Paris, L.G.D.J., 1968, p. 253. EEC: Council Decision of 4 December 1962 on the Co-ordination of Policies on the Structure of Agriculture. ——译者注。 G. Majone, La Communauté européenne: un Etat régulateur?, Paris, Montchrestien, 1996; E. Chiti, Le agenzie europee, Padua, Cedam, 2002. CFI, Case T-64/89, Automec ECR, II, p. 367. 法院认为,金融和反倾销程序也是行政性的。 CFI, Case T-54/99, max.mobil Telekommunikation Service Gmbh v. Commission, 尚未公布。关于对欧洲委员会诉讼职能的分析,参见 A.J. Gil Ibanez, A Comparative Study of the Roles of the Commission and National Administrations in the Supervision and Enforcement of EC Law, Oxford, Hart, 1999. Case T-54/99, paras. 19 and 54. Case T-54/99, para. 48. Case T-54/99, paras. 49 and 51. Case T-54/99, paras. 56-57. 这一进展源于德国法治国家(RechtsStaat)思想的观点,是由 A.Weber 提出的,参见Il diritto amministrativo procedimentale nell’ordinamento della Comunità europea, in Rivista italiana di diritto pubblico comunitario, 1992, p. 393. C. Starck 提出了同样的观点,参见Droits fondamentaux, Etat de droit et principe démocratique en tant que fondements de la procédure administrative non contentieuse, in: Eur. R. Publ. L., 1993, p. 31. 《欧洲共同体条约》第226条规定:“如果欧洲委员会认为一成员国未能履行本条约规定的义务,那么它应对此作出理由充分的决定,但是必须给予有关成员国发表意见的机会。如果有关成员国未能在欧洲委员会指定的期限内履行该决定,欧洲委员会可以将该事项提交欧洲法院裁决。”——译者注。 R. Rawlings 对此进行了分析,参见“Citizen Action and Institutional Attitudes in Commission Enforcement”, in: Eur. L. J (5), 2000, p. 4 ss. 例如 H.P. Nehl,Principles of Administrative Procedure in EC Law, Oxford, Hart Publ., 1999 一书并未考虑程序的概念。 凯尔森认为:“法律创制权威所制定的法律规范是规定性的(prescriptive);法律科学所陈述的法律规则却是叙述性的(descriptive)。”( 凯尔森著、沈宗灵译,《法与国家的一般理论》,中国大百科全书出版社1996年版,第49页。)在此,作者旨在强调初审法院创设的行政法原则具有法律规范的性质。——译者注。 30 May, Belvedere v. Italy and Carbonara v. Italy, in: Foro italiano, 2001, IV, p. 14. Judgment of 2 August 2001, Etia s.r.l. v. Italy, in: Giornale di diritto amministrativo, 2002, p. 631. S. Kadelbach, Allgemeines Verwaltungsrecht unter Europaschem Einfluss, cit. P. Reuter, Le recours de la Cour de Justice des Commanutés à des principes généraux de droit, in Mélanges Rolin, Paris, Pedone, 1964, p. 263 ss.; J.A. Usher, ’The influence of national concepts on decisions of the European Court’, in: Eur. L. Rev. (1), 1976, p. 359 ss. H.J. Blanke, Vertrauenschutz im deutschen und europaischen Verwaltungsrecht, Tubingen, Mohr, 2000, 作者认为欧洲共同体对合法性期待(legitimate expectation)的保护是一种“开创性行为”(ingerenz)。 ECJ, case 222/86, Unectef, ECR 1987, 4097; J. Schwarze (ed.), Administrative Law under European influence, London, Sweet and Maxwell, 1996; F. Hervouet, Politique jurisprudentielle de la Cour de Justice et des juridictions nationales: récepetion du droit communautaire par le droit interne des Etats, in: Revue de Droit Public, 1992, p. 1257 et seq. C. Harlow 是一个例外, 参见’Francovich and the Problem of the Disobedient State’, in: Eur. L. J. (2), 1996, p. 199 ss. 参见 A. Stone Sweet, Integration and the Europeanization of the Law, unpublished manuscript, 2002. C. Harlow, A Common European Law of Remedies?, in: C. Kilpatrick, T. Novitz and P. Stidmore (eds.), The Future of Remedies in Europe, Oxford, Hart, 2000, p. 73. S. Cassese, Il concerto regolamentare europeo delle telecomunicazioni, in: S. Cassese, Lo spazio giuridico globale, Roma-Bari, Laterza, 2003, p. 105. ECJ, case 33/76, Rewe v. Landwirtschaftskammer Saarland ECR 1989, 1997. W. Van Gerven 曾专门对此提出了批评, 参见’The invader invaded or the need to uncover general principles common to the laws of the member states’, in: G.C. Rodriguez Iglesias (ed.), Mélanges en hommage à Fernand Schockweiler, Baden-Baden, Nomos, 1999, p. 593. 有关这一问题的评论,参见J. Schwarze, ’Judicial Review in EC Law - Some Reflections on the Origins and the Actual Legal Situation’, in Int. Comp. L. Quart. (51), 2002, p. 17. ECJ, joined cases C-80, 81 and 82/99, Flemmer and Christoffel / EU Council and Commission,Leitensdorfer v. Bundesanstalt für Landswirschaft und Ernahrung, 尚未公布。 ECJ, case C-312/93, Peterbroeck ECR I - 4599; joined cases C-430/93 and 431/93, van Schijndel ECR I - 4075. 关于对此的批评,参见 C. Harlow, Voices of Difference in a Plural Community, EUI Jean Monnet working paper no. 3/2000. G.C. Rodriguez Iglesias 表达了不同的看法,参见Sui limiti dell’autonomia procedimentale e processuale degli stati membri nell’applicazione del diritto comunitario, in: Rivista italiana di diritto pubblico comunitario, 2001, p. 5 et seq. WT/DS46/AB/R Brazil - Export Financing Programme for Aircraft, decision of 2 August 1999, para. 160. 包括三份决定: 1.专家小组报告,WT/DS58R, 15 May 1998; 2.上诉机构报告,WT/DS58/AB/R 12 October 1998; 3.上诉机构报告,WT/DS58/AB/RW, 22 October 2001. 三个案件分别被简称为 Shrimp I、Shrimp II 和 Shrimp III. 关于这些案件的研究,参见 A. von Bogdandy, ’Law and Politics in the WTO’, in: Max Planck Yearbook of International Law, 2000, p. 613; J. Scott, ’On Kith and Kine (and Crustaceans): Trade and Environment in the EU and WTO’, in: J.H.H. Weiler (ed), The EU, the WTO and the NAFTA. Towards A Common Law of International Trade, Oxford, 2000, p. 125 et seq. Shrimp II, para. 127. Shrimp II, para. 129; Shrimp III, para. 119. 另参见上诉机构报告,United States - Standard for Reformulated and Conventional Gasoline, WT/DS2/AB/R, adopted 20 May 1996, para. 21-22. Shrimp II, para. 167-168. 参见 T. Scovazzi (ed.), The Protection of the Environment in a context of regional economic integration. The Case of the European Community, the Mercosur and the NAFTA, Milan, Giuffrè, 2002. Shrimp III, paras. 115, 122, commented by P. Trachtmann on the web site of Eur. J. of Int. L. . Shrimp II, para. 180. Shrimp II, para. 141; E. Cannizzaro, The Role of Proportionality in the Law of International Countermeasures, in: Eu .J. Int. Law (12), 2001, p. 889. Shrimp III, para. 153. Shrimp II, para. 181. T. Daintith 对美国所具有的,已经得到强化的“支配地位”(hegemony)进行了评论,参见 ’Exchange, response and competition: external perspectives on the United Kingdom constitution’, in: Public Law, 2000, p. 165. 关于私法工具的讨论,参见 P.N. Doremus, ’The Externalization of Domestic Regulation: Intellectual Property Rights in a Global Era’, in: Indiana J. Of Global Legal Studies (3), 1996, no. 2, p. 1. 关于《联邦行政程序法》应当适应新情况作出调整的观点是由 A. C. Aman, jr.提出的,参见’Proposals for Reforming the Administrative Procedure Act: Globalization, Democracy and the Furtherance of a Global Public Interest’, in: Ind. J. Global Legal Studies (6), 2001, p. 397. 参见 A. Stone Sweet, ’The new GATT: Dispute Resolution and the Judicialization of the Trade Regime’, in: M. Volcansek (ed.), Law Above Nations: Supranational Courts and the Legalization of Politics, Gainesville, University of Florida Press, 1999, p. 118; Y. Iwasawa, ’WTO Dispute Settlement as Judicial Supervision’, in: J. of Int. Ec. Law (5), 2002, no. 2, p. 287. 关于私人组织和非政府组织能否参与GATT/WTO争端解决程序的问题,曾经引起了广泛的争论。两起海豚案的专家小组报告(分别于1991和1994年作出,但未获得通过)和系列海龟案的裁决都对这一问题作出了肯定的回答。此后,欧盟也建立起了允许私人组织参与司法程序的法律机制。参见G. Shaffer, Defending Interests: Public-Private Parternship in WTO Litigation, Brookings Institution Press, 2003. ——译者注。 N.M. Blokker and H.G. Schermers (eds.), Proliferation of International Organizations, The Hague, Kluwer, 2001. 在经济全球化进程中,国家的观念逐渐被淡化。同时,私人组织可以突破地域限制,它们运作效率高,并有着丰富的专业知识和管理经验。这种全球化的经济环境促使公共职能越来越多地被委托给私人组织承担,从而形成了一种公/私融合式的“新政府治理”(new governance)模式。因此,私有化是政府治理方式向多样化发展的重要标志。这种“新政府治理”模式涵盖了各级政府为了履行职责而可以运用的一系列方法,例如合同式委托、资助、税收支出、代金券、直接贷款、政府企业以及特许经营等。参见Alfred C. Aman, Jr., ’Globalization, Democracy, and the Need for a New Administrative Law’, in: UCLA Law Rev. (49), 2002, p. 1687. ——译者注。 关于这一问题,N. Luhmann 作出了基础性的贡献,Legitimation durch Verfahren, Stuttgart, 1976, 该书引发了广泛的争论,参见 K.F. Rohl and S. Machura (eds.), Procedural Justice, Ashgate, Dartmouth, 1997. 另参见 D.J. Galligan, Due Process and Fair Procedures, cit., p. 350 et seq. R.B. Stewart, ’The Reformation of American Administrative Law’, in: Harvard Law Rev. (88), 1975, p. 1670. 参见 C. Harlow, ’European Administrative Law and the Global Challenge’, in: P. Craig and G. de Bur?a (eds.), The Evolution of EU Law, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 261. A. Chayes 和 A. Handler Chayes 概述了新主权(the new sovereignty)观念, 参见The New Sovereignty: Compliance with International Regulatory Agreements, Cambridge (Mass.), University Press, 1995; R.O. Keohane, ’Ironies of Sovereignty: the European Union and United States’, in: J. Common Market St. (40), 2002, p. 743 et seq. ] 严格地讲,在欧洲共同法时期,lex alius loci是与lex alterius loci相对应的概念。前者指普遍适用于多个民族的法律,后者则仅仅指两个民族之间共同的法律。在当代,lex alius loci通常被用来描述一国法官运用他国法律和惯例审理案件的现象。这种现象在日益强化的欧洲一体化进程中屡见不鲜。 ——译者注。
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